Solaris Advanced User's Guide
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Solaris Advanced User's Guide


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Part No: 801-6615-10
Revision A, August 1994
Credits
(C) 1994 Sun Microsystems, Inc. 2550 Garcia Avenue, Mountain View, California 94043-1100 U.S.A.
All rights reserved. This product and related documentation are protected by copyright and distributed under licenses restricting its use, copying, distribution, and decompilation. No part of this product or related documentation may be reproduced in any form by any means without prior written authorization of Sun and its licensors, if any.
Portions of this product may be derived from the UNIX(R) and Berkeley 4.3 BSD systems, licensed from UNIX System Laboratories, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of Novell, Inc., and the University of California, respectively. Third-party font software in this product is protected by copyright and licensed from Sun's font suppliers.
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The product described in this manual may be protected by one or more U.S. patents, foreign patents, or pending applications.
TRADEMARKS Sun, the Sun logo, Sun Microsystems, Sun Microsystems Computer Corporation, SunSoft, the SunSoft logo, Solaris, SunOS, OpenWindows, DeskSet, ONC, ONC+, and NFS are trademarks or registered trademarks of Sun Microsystems, Inc. in the U.S. and certain other countries. UNIX and OPEN LOOK are registered trademarks of UNIX System Laboratories, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of Novell, Inc. PostScript and Display PostScript are trademarks of Adobe Systems, Inc. All other product names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners.
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THIS PUBLICATION COULD INCLUDE TECHNICAL INACCURACIES OR TYPOGRAPHICAL ERRORS. CHANGES ARE PERIODICALLY ADDED TO THE INFORMATION HEREIN; THESE CHANGES WILL BE INCORPORATED IN NEW EDITIONS OF THE PUBLICATION. SUN MICROSYSTEMS, INC. MAY MAKE IMPROVEMENTS AND/OR CHANGES IN THE PRODUCT(S) AND/OR THE PROGRAM(S) DESCRIBED IN THIS PUBLICATION AT ANY TIME.
Contents

............................Contents


About This Book 		xiii

1. Logging In to SunOS
...and Starting OpenWindows 1
...Logging In 1
...Your Login Shell 2
...Logging Out 3
...Keyboard Equivalents 4
...OpenWindows Start-up Considerations 5
......The OPENWINHOME Environment Variable 6
......Using the Correct Start-Up File 7
...Starting the OpenWindows User Environment 8
......Displaying the OpenWindows Software 9
......If OpenWindows Won't Display 11
...Quitting the OpenWindows Environment 11
...Special OpenWindows Start-up Options 12
......Starting with Reduced Network Security 12
......Starting with Various Monitor Types 13
......SPARC Starting with Multiple Monitors 13

2. Basic SunOS Commands 		17
...The Command Prompt 17
...Entering Commands 18
......Correcting Typing Mistakes 18
......Entering Multiple Commands and Long Commands 19
......Repeating Previous Commands 20
......Adding Command Options 21
......Redirecting and Piping Command Output 21
......Running Commands in the Background 23
...Getting Help with OS Commands 24
......Displaying Manual Pages with man 24
......Displaying a One-line Summary with whatis 24
......Keyword Lookup with apropos 25

3. Working with Files and Directories 		27
...File Concepts 27
...Using File Commands 28
......Before You Begin 28
......Creating a Test File 29
......Listing Files (ls) 29
......Copying Files (cp) 29
......Moving and Renaming Files (mv) 30
......Deleting Files (rm) 30
......Displaying File Contents (more, cat) 31
......Displaying File Type (file) 32
...Directories and Hierarchy 32
......Directory Hierarchy 32
......Print Working Directory (pwd) 33
......Your Home Directory 34
......Change Working Directory (cd) 34
......Creating a Directory (mkdir) 36
......Relative Path Names 36
......Moving and Renaming Directories 37
......Copying Directories 37
......Removing Directories (rmdir) 38
...Looking at Differences Between Files (diff) 38
......Comparing Three Different Files (diff3) 41
......Using bdiff on Large Files 41
...Looking Up Files (find) 41
...File and Directory Security 44
......Displaying Permissions and Status (ls -l) 45
......Listing "Hidden" Files (ls -a) 46
......Changing Permissions (chmod) 46
......Setting Absolute Permissions 50

4. Searching Files 		55
...Searching for Patterns with grep 55
......grep as a Filter 56
......grep with Multi-Word Strings 57
......Searching for Lines without a Certain String 58
......More on grep 58
......Searching for Metacharacters 60
......Single or Double Quotes on Command Lines 61

5. Passwords, Processes,
...and Disk Storage 63
...Using a Password 63
......Changing Your Password 64
......Password Aging 65
...Processes and PIDs 66
......What Commands Are Running Now (ps) 66
......Terminating Processes (kill) 67
...Managing Disk Storage 68
......Displaying Disk Usage (df -k) 68
......Displaying Directory Usage (du) 68

6. Using the vi Editor 		69
...Starting vi 70
......Creating a File 70
......The Status Line 71
...The Two Modes of vi 71
......Entry Mode 71
......Command Mode 72
...Ending a Session 73
......Saving Changes and Quitting vi 73
...Printing a File 74
...Basic vi Commands 75
......Moving Around in a File 75
......Inserting Text 78
......Changing Text 79
......Undoing Changes 80
......Deleting Text 81
......Copying and Moving Text -- Yank, Delete, and Put 82
......Using a Count to Repeat Commands 84
...Using ex Commands 84
......Turning Line Numbers On and Off 84
......Copying Lines 85
......Moving Lines 86
......Deleting Lines 86
...Searching and Replacing with vi 87
......Finding a Character String 87
......Refining the Search 88
......Replacing a Character String 89
......Going to a Specific Line 90
...Inserting One File into Another 90
...Editing Multiple Files 91
......Editing a Series of Files 91
......Copying Lines Between Files 92
...Setting vi Parameters 92
...Recovering from a Crash 93
...Summary of Basic vi Commands 93

7. Using Mail 		97
...mailx Basics 97
......Starting mailx 98
......Sending Yourself a Sample Letter 98
......Reading Your Sample Letter 100
......Quitting mailx 101
...Reading Letters 102
...Deleting (and Undeleting) Letters 103
...Printing Letters 105
...Sending Letters 105
......Undeliverable Letters 107
......Canceling an Unsent Letter 107
......Adding Carbon and Blind Carbon Copies 108
......Inserting a Copy of a Letter or File 109
......Replying to a Letter 109
...Saving and Retrieving Letters 110
......Saving and Copying Letters in Files 110
......Saving and Copying Letters in Folders 111
......Reading Letters in Files and Folders 113
...Using vi with mailx 114
...Mail Aliases 115
......Setting Up Mail Aliases in .mailrc 115
......Setting Up Mail Aliases in /etc/aliases 117
...Tilde Commands 120
...Getting Help: Other mailx Commands 121

8. Using Printers 		123
...Submitting Print Requests 123
......Submitting Print Requests to the Default Printer 124
......Submitting Print Requests Using a Printer Name 124
......Requesting Notification when Printing is Complete 125
......Printing Multiple Copies 126
......Summary Table of lp Options 126
...Determining Printer Status 127
......Checking on the Status of Your Print Requests 127
......Checking on Available Printers 128
......Displaying All Status Information 128
......Displaying Status for Printers 129
......Displaying Printer Characteristics 130
......Summary Table of lpstat Options 131
...Canceling a Print Request 132
......Canceling a Print Request by ID Number 133
......Canceling a Print Request by Printer Name 133

9. Using the Network 		135
...Networking Concepts 136
...Logging In Remotely (rlogin) 136
......rlogin without a Home Directory 137
......rlogin as Someone Else 138
......rlogin to an Unknown Machine 138
......Aborting an rlogin Connection 139
......Suspending an rlogin Connection 140
......Verifying Your Location (who am i) 140
...Copying Files Remotely (rcp) 141
......Copying from Another Machine to Yours 141
......Copying from Your Machine to Another 142
...Executing Commands Remotely (rsh) 142
...Viewing User Information (rusers) 143

10. Customizing Your
...Working Environment 145
...Initialization Files 145
...Environment Variables 146
......The User Profile 147
......Setting the PATH Variable 149
......Aliases (C Shell Only) 150
......Changing Your Command Prompt 151
......Other Useful Variables 152
...Setting Default File Permissions 153
...Customizing OpenWindows Fonts 155
......Specifying the Font Style and Point Size 155
......Listing the Available Fonts 158

A. Migrating to OpenWindows Version 3.3, or Later Versions . 		159
...SPARC Migrating from the SunView Environment 159
......SPARC The .defaults and .Xdefaults Files 159
...Migrating from a pre-Version 3.3 OpenWindows Environment 160
......The OPENWINHOME Environment Variable 160
......The .xinitrc File 161
......Using the Correct Start-up File 161
......Workspace Properties 163
......Customizing the Workspace Menu 163

B. Modifying the Keyboard 		165
...Disabling/Enabling the Compose Key 165
...SPARC Left-Handed Key Remapping 166
......SPARC Using the Remapping Script 166
......SPARC Undoing the Keyboard Remapping 168

C. Running Networked Applications 		171
...Using rlogin to Run a Networked Application 172
...More About Security 173
......Who Should Read this Section 174
......Access Control Mechanisms 174
......Authorization Protocols 175
......Manipulating Access to the Server 176
......Running Clients Remotely, or Locally as Another User 180

D. SPARC --DECnet Internetworking(DNI) 		183
...Setting Up DECnet Internetworking 184
...Displaying a Remote Client on an OpenWindows Machine 185
...Displaying a Remote Client on a VAX 185

E. Setting Up Printers and Modems 		189
...Setting Up a Modem on Your System 189
......For Additional Information About Modems 191
...Setting Up a Printer For Use On Your System 192
......For Additional Information About Printers 193

Index 		195
About This Book

About This Book

Who Should Read This Book

Who Should Read This Book

This book is aimed at users of the SolarisTM System Software. The Solaris System Software consists of SunOS(TM) and OpenWindows(TM).
Before Reading This Book

Before Reading This Book

Your system should be installed and ready for use. If it is not, see SPARC: Installing Solaris Software or x86: Installing Solaris Software or the installation manual specific to your system before continuing.
Additional Reading

Additional Reading

The Solaris System Software Answerbook provides access to a number of books about the Solaris software, which are organized into the following related sets:
  • Sun Administrator's Set This set offers detailed installation and system administration information for a variety of system configurations, including larger networks of Sun workstations.
  • Sun Developer's Set This set gives software developers the information they need to write, debug, and maintain programs on the system.
  • Sun Reference Manual Set This set contains a description for every SunOS command. Called man pages, they can optionally be installed as online documentation.
  • Sun User's Set This set offers a detailed description of various aspects of the SunOS system, including using SunOS commands, working with OpenWindows, customizing your work environment, handling problems, writing shell scripts, using electronic mail, and working on the network.
For more information on the Solaris System Software Answerbook, see Solaris Roadmap.
Typographic Conventions

Typographic Conventions

The following conventions are used in this guide:

Imported image(504x21)


It is also used for text that the system displays on the screen. For example:

Imported image(504x32)

  • Names of mouse buttons are referred to by function, not by location, and are capitalized. For example, "Press SELECT" is used, not "Press left."

Figure P-1 Default Functions of the Mouse Buttons

For a three-button mouse, the default function assignments are:
  • SELECT = the left mouse button
  • ADJUST = the middle mouse button
  • MENU = the right mouse button
For a two-button mouse, the default function assignments are:
  • SELECT = the left mouse button
  • MENU = the right mouse button
To use the ADJUST function on a two-button mouse, press and hold the keyboard Shift key and click the SELECT mouse button.
  • Names of keys on the keyboard have initial capitals (for example, Press the Shift key). The key referred to as Return is labeled Enter on some keyboards.
Note - Solaris supports both SPARC and x86-based machines, whose keyboards differ. Consequently, some keyboard equivalents of commands found in OpenWindows menus differ, according to keyboard.
For most keyboard equivalents, Solaris supports a Meta key combination that can be used on both platforms. See Chapter 1, "Logging In to SunOS and Starting OpenWindows,"" for a list of command functions and their various keyboard equivalents.

Platform-Specific Conventions

The following symbols preceding a section or procedure title indicate that the section or procedure pertains only to the particular platform:
SPARC Denotes a SPARC platform-specific section or procedure
x86 Denotes an x86 platform-specific section or procedure
Platform-specific notes are indicated as follows:
SPARC - This note is specific to the SPARC platform.
x86 - This note is specific to the x86 platform.
Platform-specific bullet items are indicated as follows:
  • SPARC: This bullet is specific to the SPARC platform.
  • x86: This bullet is specific to the x86 platform.
If a code sample, table, or figure pertains to a specific platform, the name of the particular platform appears at the beginning of the title. For example:
Table 1-1 SPARC: Title Specific to SPARC Platform
Table 1-2 x86: Title Specific to x86 Platform
1 Logging In to SunOS and Starting OpenWindows

Logging In to SunOS and Starting OpenWindows

1

The OpenWindows Version software should already be installed on your hard disk or on an accessible server in your file system. If you are unsure about this, see your system administrator, or refer to the SPARC: Installing Solaris Software or x86: Installing Solaris Software.
This chapter describes how to log in to your system, how to use a shell command interpreter, how to mount and start up the OpenWindows user environment, how to exit the window system, and how to log out. It also describes some special cases, such as configuring the OpenWindows environment for dual monitors.
Logging In

Logging In

A standard work session is defined as the interval between the time you log in to the system and the time you log out. The SunOS multiuser environment requires that you identify yourself each time you want to use the system. Your login name (also known as a user name or an account) serves as your identity to the system and to other users on the system. Your password restricts use of your account to those people who know the password. If you don't already have a login name and password, ask the person who is designated as the system administrator for your system to set up an account for you. Once you have this information, you are ready to log in.
Before you log in to the system, your screen should look similar to the following:

  login:
Enter the login name given to you by the system administrator and press the Return key. For example, if your login name is spanky, type:

  login: spanky
and press Return. Next, the system requests your password as follows:

  login: spanky  
  Password:
Type your password at the prompt and press Return. (If your account does not have a password assigned to it, the system logs you in without asking you for a password.) Note that the system does not display (echo) your password on the screen as you type it. This is to help prevent others from discovering your password.
Your Login Shell

Your Login Shell

In the chapters that follow, you'll begin entering SunOS commands. When you issue a command to the system, you are actually providing information to a command interpretation program, called a shell. The shell program then reads the information you have provided and causes the proper action to take place within the system.
The default shell for SunOS system software is the Bourne shell, but there are also two other shell programs available within the operating system: the C shell and the Korn shell. Each of these shells has its own unique differences.
Note - You can get specific information about any SunOS command, including each of the available shells, by viewing its man (manual reference) page. For more information on man pages, see "Displaying Manual Pages with man" in Chapter 2, "Basic SunOS Commands."
When you initially log in to the system (or open a new Command Tool or Shell Tool window) and you see your command prompt, it indicates that a shell program has been started for you automatically. This shell is called your login shell. If your login shell is not the SunOS default (the Bourne shell), it is because a different shell (either the C or Korn shell) has been specified for you by your system administrator.
As mentioned, each shell has its differences. Some commands or procedures available when using one shell may not be available when using another. With this in mind, please note that whenever any commands or procedures are presented in this manual that are not available using the default shell for SunOS (the Bourne shell), the sections are clearly marked as such.
Logging Out

Logging Out

When you have finished your work session and are ready to exit the operating system, type the following to log out:

  $ exit
After a moment, the system once again displays the login prompt:

  $ exit  
  login:
When you see the login prompt, it indicates that you have successfully logged out. The system is now ready for you or another user to log in.
Note - With the SunOS operating system, turning off your workstation or terminal does not necessarily log you out. Unless you log out explicitly, you may remain logged in to the system.
Keyboard Equivalents

Keyboard Equivalents

Although the operations you do not require extensive use of OpenWindows menus and the mouse, in some cases you can speed up these operations by using a sequence of keystrokes, called keyboard accelerators, that duplicate the operations of the mouse and menus, and of the pre-configured keyboard keys.
The following table lists several command operations and the keyboard equivalents for both SPARC and x86-based machines.
Note - The Meta key is the <> key on SPARC keyboards and is obtained on x86 keyboards by pressing Ctrl-Alt.
To carry out a keyboard accelerator operation, press and hold the first key (Meta or Control-Alt together) and type the second key. For example, to cut selected text, press and hold the Meta key and press x on a SPARC sytem; on an x86 system, press and hold Control and Alt together and press x simultaneously
Table 1-1 Keyboard Accelerators
OperationKeyboard EquivalentAction
AgainMeta - aRepeats the previous operation
CopyMeta - cCopies the selection to the clipboard
CutMeta - xCuts the selection and puts it on the clipboard
FindMeta - fFinds the selection to the right of the caret
HelpHelp or F1Displays a help window with context-sensitive help for the object at the pointer location
NewMeta - nLoads a new file
Open (File)Meta - oOpens a file (for example, if you've highlighted a file icon in File Manager)
Open (Window)Meta - wOpens an icon or closes a window to an icon
Table 1-1 Keyboard Accelerators
OperationKeyboard EquivalentAction
PasteMeta - vCopies the clipboard selection to the insertion point
PrintMeta - pSends the file to the printer (for example, if you've highlighted a file icon in File Manager)
PropsMeta - iDisplays the property window for th application at the pointer location
RedoShift-Meta - pUndoes an Undo
SaveMeta - sSave the current file
StopStop or EscStops the current operation
UndoMeta - uUndoes the previous operation
OpenWindows Start-up Considerations

OpenWindows Start-up Considerations

Before you start the OpenWindows software, take note of these considerations. If none of these considerations apply to you, skip ahead to "Displaying the OpenWindows Software," in this chapter.
x86 - If you changed the type of mouse device, keyboard, or video adaptor card on your system after installing Solaris, you'll need to run the devconfig program to update system configuration. See the devconfig(1M) man page.

The OPENWINHOME Environment Variable

If you are currently running a version of the OpenWindows software earlier than Version 3.3, you may have set up your system to use the OPENWINHOME environment variable. It is no longer recommended that users set the OPENWINHOME environment variable, either by-hand or from a start-up file.
When you run the openwin command it automatically sets the OPENWINHOME environment variable to /usr/openwin; therefore, you do not need to do it.
If you have set the OPENWINHOME environment variable in either the .profile or .cshrc file in your home directory, comment out the line or delete it altogether before running OpenWindows Version 3.3, or a later version.
To remove, or comment out, the OPENWINHOME environment variable in the .profile or .cshrc file:
  1. Open the .profile or .cshrc file using a text editor such as vi.

  2. Type a pound sign (#) before the variable, as shown below, or delete the line entirely.

    If you are working in the .profile file, do Step a; if you are working in the .cshrc file, do Step b.

    a. In the .profile file:


  #OPENWINHOME=/usr/openwin
a. In the .cshrc file:

  #setenv OPENWINHOME /usr/openwin
  1. Save and quit the file.

  2. Unset the OPENWINHOME environment variable (or log out and log back in).

    If you are running the Bourne or Korn shell, do Step a. If you are running the C shell, do Step b.

a. In the Bourne or Korn shell, type:

  $ unset OPENWINHOME
b. In the C shell, type:

  example% unsetenv OPENWINHOME
Once you have unset the environment variable you are ready to run the OpenWindows software, as described in "Displaying the OpenWindows Software," in this chapter.

Using the Correct Start-Up File

If you are currently running a version of the OpenWindows software earlier than Version 3.3, it is important to determine the status of your .xinitrc file. The .xinitrc file is an OpenWindows start-up file your home directory that may contain user-defined options.
To determine the status of your .xinitrc file, type the following commands:

  $ cd  
  $ ls -a .xinitrc
Depending on the output of this command, do one of the following things:
  • If you do not have a .xinitrc file (that is, the results of the previous ls -a command does not return a listing for the file) do nothing. If there is no .xinitrc file in your home directory, OpenWindows uses the system default start-up file.
  • If you have a .xinitrc file (that is, the result of the previous ls -a command returns a listing for the file), but you have never made any changes to the file or do not want to keep the changes you have made, do Step 1 in "Start-Up File Procedures."
  • If you have a .xinitrc file (that is, the result of the previous ls -a command returns a listing for the file), and you have made changes to the file that you want to keep, do Step 2 in "Start-Up File Procedures."

Start-Up File Procedures

  1. To delete the .xinitrc file from your home directory, type the following command:


  $ rm .xinitrc
  1. To retain the changes to your .xinitrc file, do the following steps:

    a. Move .xinitrc to .xinitrc.save:


  $ mv .xinitrc .xinitrc.save
b. Copy $OPENWINHOME/lib/Xinitrc to .xinitrc in your home directory:

  $ cp $OPENWINHOME/lib/Xinitrc $HOME/.xinitrc
c. Add the lines that you want to keep from the .xinitrc.save to .xinitrc.
CAUTION Caution - When editing the .xinitrc file, do not add a secondary version of olwm, do not add svenv, and do not remove the line containing $OPENWINHOME/lib/openwin-sys.
Starting the OpenWindows User Environment

Starting the OpenWindows User Environment

To start the OpenWindows user environment you perform the following general steps:
  1. Using NFS, mount the OpenWindows software from the server on which it is installed.

    For information on how to mount the OpenWindows software from a server, see OpenWindows Reference Manual, or talk to your system administrator.

  2. Start the OpenWindows software with the command openwin, adding any additional start-up options as needed.

Displaying the OpenWindows Software

Once you have mounted the OpenWindows software from a server and run the OpenWindows installation script you are ready to start the OpenWindows software.
To start the OpenWindows software, type /usr/openwin/bin/openwin at the shell prompt and press Return.

  $ /usr/openwin/bin/openwin
This displays the OpenWindows Version 3.3 screen and sets up the OpenWindows working environment.

Displaying OpenWindows Quickly

Once you have successfully started OpenWindows, you can set up your system to use a shortcut so that you do not need to type the full OpenWindows path each time.
If you are using the Bourne or Korn shells you do this by placing a shell function in your .profile file. If you are using the C shell you put an alias in your .cshrc file. Both the .profile and .cshrc files are found in your home directory.
When you have placed the shortcut in the appropriate file for your shell, to start OpenWindows simply type:

  $ openwin
How to enter the OpenWindows shortcut into your start-up files is described in the following sections, "In the .profile File," and "In the .cshrc File."
In the .profile File To enter the OpenWindows shortcut into your .profile file:
  1. Open the .profile file using a text editor such as vi.

  1. Enter the following shell function, exactly as shown, into the file:


  openwin () {  
          /usr/openwin/bin/openwin  
  }
  1. Save and quit the file.

  2. Log out and log back in to activate the shortcut, or type:


  $ . .profile
Now, whenever you want to start OpenWindows, you simply have to type openwin.
In the .cshrc File To enter the OpenWindows shortcut into your .cshrc file:
  1. Open the .cshrc file using a text editor such as vi.

  2. Enter the following alias command, exactly as shown, into the file:


  alias openwin /usr/openwin/bin/openwin
  1. Save and quit the file.

  2. Log out and log back in to activate the shortcut, or type:


  example% source .cshrc
Now, whenever you want to start OpenWindows, you simply have to type openwin.

If OpenWindows Won't Display

When you start the OpenWindows software it is accessed through the directory /usr/openwin. The OpenWindows software is installed in this location by default. Many applications, for example Calendar Manager, cannot load unless the OpenWindows software is properly installed in /usr/openwin.
If your OpenWindows does not start when you type the command /usr/openwin/bin/openwin, either you do not have the OpenWindows software installed, or it is installed in a directory other than /usr/openwin. See the OpenWindows Reference Manual, or see your system administrator.
Quitting the OpenWindows Environment

Quitting the OpenWindows Environment

Once you have displayed the OpenWindows software and are working in the windows environment, you cannot log out as you would from a standard SunOS command-line session. You must first exit from the windows environment and then log out.
If you type logout at a shell prompt, you see the message:

  Not login shell.
To exit from the OpenWindows environment, follow these steps:
  1. Position the mouse so that the arrow (pointer) is on the background of your screen (the workspace).

  2. Press the MENU mouse button.

    The Workspace menu appears, presenting several options.

  3. Drag the pointer down the menu until you highlight the last menu item,

Exit.
  1. Release the mouse button.

    A popup window appears, asking you to confirm that you want to exit the window system.

  2. Position the pointer on Exit and click the SELECT mouse button. After a few moments all the windows are dismissed and the system prompt appears in the lower left corner of your screen.

Special OpenWindows Start-up Options

Special OpenWindows Start-up Options

Most users can start the OpenWindows software by following the steps described in "Displaying the OpenWindows Software." However, in some cases you may want to use additional options to modify the OpenWindows start-up.
This section describes the following special cases:
  • Starting the OpenWindows software with reduced network security.
  • Starting the OpenWindows software with various monitor and frame buffer types.
  • Starting the OpenWindows software on multiple screens.
To start up the OpenWindows software with special options, you use the openwin command:

  $ openwin [ options ]
In the preceding example, options are the command line options that enable you to tailor the default setup of the server. The following sections describe some of more commonly used options.

Starting with Reduced Network Security

If you are operating in an open networked environment and are not concerned about network security, you may want to use the -noauth option so that other users can run applications on your system.
The following command overrides the default security feature, which enables you to specify other users who can access your window server:

  $ openwin -noauth

Starting with Various Monitor Types

If you have a gray-scale monitor (a non-color monitor with a frame buffer of 8 bits or more) you may want to use the grayvis option when you start up the OpenWindows software. This may improve certain aspects of your OpenWindows display, but it is not required.
To use this option, type the following at the system prompt:

  $ cd  
  $ openwin -dev /dev/fb grayvis
SPARC Starting with Multiple Monitors
SPARC - Note the following sections concerning "Starting with Multiple Monitors" apply only to SPARC-based machines. These sections require some system administration experience. If you have never configured a system, ask your system administrator for assistance.
To run the OpenWindows environment on multiple screens, you must inform the system of the additional devices and display types you want to run. You can either specify the device options or use the default values available with the openwin script that starts up the OpenWindows software.
Two options are required with the openwin command when you start the software on dual monitors:

  $ openwin [ [ -dev device ] [ deviceoptions ] ]
The double brackets indicate that the combination of [ -dev device ] [ deviceoptions ] can be entered more than once on the command line (that is, once per device).
[ -dev device ] The device command line option specifies the frame buffer device which the server should use for the display, or screen.
If the command line does not show this option, the server uses the default, /dev/fb. Multiple (more than one) occurrences of the -dev option on the command line indicate multiple displays on the same server.
[ deviceoptions ] The deviceoptions command line option is a list of device modifiers that change the behavior of the device specified in the -dev option.

Device Option Examples

This section provides examples of stacked and side-by-side dual-monitor arrangements.
Note - In all examples, the order of the devices is important. The first device specified must be the screen physically placed to the left or top of the second device. The second device specified must be the screen physically placed to the right or bottom of the first device.
[ left ] [ right ]
The following command line instructs the system to start up two displays. The left display is the default frame buffer and the right display is a monochrome. This enables you to move the cursor left and right between the two displays.

  $ openwin -dev /dev/fb left -dev /dev/fbs/bwtwo0 right
The following example is equivalent to the previous example. By default, the first device is to the left of the second device listed in the command line.

  $ openwin -dev /dev/fb -dev /dev/fbs/bwtwo0
The following command line instructs the system to start up two displays. The right display is the default frame buffer and the left display is a monochrome. This setup enables you to move the cursor left and right between the two displays.

  $ openwin -dev /dev/fb right -dev /dev/fbs/bwtwo0 left
[ top ] [ bottom ]
The following command line instructs the system to start up two displays. The top display is a CG6 and the bottom display is a monochrome. This setup enables you to move the cursor up and down between the two displays.

  $  openwin -dev /dev/fbs/cgsix0 top -dev /dev/fbs/bwtwo0 bottom
The following example is not equivalent to the previous example. By default, the first device is to the left of the second device listed in the command line.

  $  openwin -dev /dev/fbs/cgsix0 -dev /dev/fbs/bwtwo0
The following command line instructs the server to start up two displays. The bottom display is a CG6 and the top display is a monochrome. This setup enables you to move the cursor up and down between the two displays.

  $  openwin -dev /dev/fbs/cgsix0 bottom -dev /dev/fbs/bwtwo0 top

Miscellaneous Notes

The following are important considerations when you are running multiple screens.
  • By default, olwm manages all screens.
  • You cannot move windows between screens.
2 Basic SunOS Commands

Basic SunOS Commands

2

This chapter provides an introduction to user commands in the SunOS operating system. It describes how to enter commands, how to correct typing mistakes, how to enter long or multiple commands, how to use command options, and other useful information about SunOS commands.
To enter commands, use a Command Tool or Shell Tool window. To display these windows, select the Programs submenu on the Workspace menu.
The Command Prompt

The Command Prompt

Once you've logged in, the screen or window will be empty except for an initial prompt. The nature of this prompt will vary depending on the shell you are using and on how your system administrator originally set it up. Since the default command prompt for SunOS system software is the dollar sign ($), this prompt is used in most of the examples presented in this manual.
If you decide later that you want to change your command prompt, see "Changing Your Command Prompt" in Chapter 10, "Customizing Your Working Environment" for instructions.
Entering Commands

Entering Commands

When you see the command prompt, it means that the system is waiting for you to enter a command. Try entering the command date at the prompt, as shown in this example (type date and press the Return key):

  $ date  
  Mon Feb 3 10:12:51 PST 1992  
  $
As you can see, this command displays the current date and time. Now try entering the same command, but capitalized:

  $ Date  
  Date: Command not found.  
  $
As you can see, an uppercase D is not the same as a lowercase d when interpreted by the system. Nearly all commands in the SunOS operating system are lowercase.

Correcting Typing Mistakes

Suppose you started to type Date, but then realized your mistake before pressing the Return key. The text you type is not sent to the system until you press Return. Therefore, it is still possible to correct your mistake. You have two choices:
  • Press the Delete or Backspace key to backspace to the error; or
  • Type Ctrl-U to erase the entire line and start over. (Hold down the Control key and press "u".)
Try both of these and see how they work. (The Delete/Backspace key varies on some systems. Ctrl-U should work on most systems.)

Entering Multiple Commands and Long Commands

You can enter more than one command on a single line. Simply place a semicolon (;) between the commands, as shown here with the date command and the logname command:

  $ date; logname  
  Mon Feb 3 10:19:25 PST 1992  
  spanky  
  $
As you can see, this displays the current date and time (from the date command) and the login name of the user currently logged in to the system (from the logname command).
If you are typing a very long command, you can use the backslash character (\) to continue typing on a second line. For example:

  $ date; \  
  logname  
  Mon Feb 3 10:23:25 PST 1992  
  hankw  
  $
Even though the date and logname commands are by no means long commands, they are used in this example to demonstrate the concept of continuing a set of commands on the next line in as simple a manner as possible. Later, when the commands you want to use are longer than the width of your screen, you'll see how using the backslash character can be extremely useful.
Note - If you are using the Shell Tool or Command Tool windows in the OpenWindows environment, you won't need to use the backslash character to continue typing commands on the next line. When you reach the end of a line, the commands you're typing wrap to the next line automatically, and the system executes all commands when you press Return.

Repeating Previous Commands

Note - The command repeating features described in this section are available only if you are using the C shell.
A quick way to repeat the last command you typed is to type !! and press Return. The system keeps a history of commands you type and is able to repeat previous commands. For example, if the last command you entered was date:

  example% !!  
  date  
  Mon Feb 3 10:26:20 PST 1992  
  example%
You can also repeat any previously typed command by typing !x, where x is the desired command's corresponding number on the history list. To see the history list, type the history command and press Return. The following is an example of what you might see:

  example% history  
  1  pwd  
  2  clear  
  3  ls -l  
  4  cd /usr/home/worker  
  5  logname  
  6  date  
  7  history
Another method for repeating characters from the history list is to follow the ! with a negative number. For example, to repeat the second from the last command on the history list, you would type the following:

  example% !-2  
  logname  
  hankw  
  example%
Using the example history list above, the logname command is repeated.
Still another method is to follow the ! with the first few characters of a previous command. For example, if you had previously entered the clear command to clear your screen, you could type !cl to clear your screen again. With this method for repeating commands, however, you must use enough characters for the desired command to be unique in the history list. If you use only one letter after the !, the system will repeat the most recent command beginning with that letter.

Adding Command Options

Many commands have options that invoke special features of the command. For example, the date command has the option -u, which expresses the date in Greenwich Mean Time instead of local time:

  $ date -u  
  Mon Feb 3 11:06:51 GMT 1993  
  $
Most options are expressed as a single character preceded by a dash (-). Not all commands have options. Some commands have more than one. If you use more than one option for a command, you can either type the options separately ( -a -b) or together (-ab).

Redirecting and Piping Command Output

Unless you indicate otherwise, commands normally display their results on the screen. There are special symbols that allow you to redirect the output of a command. For example, you may want to save the output to a file rather than display it on the screen. The following example illustrates the use of the redirect symbol (>):

  $ date > sample.file  
  $
In this example, the output from the date command is redirected to a new file called sample.file. Next, the contents of sample.file are displayed with the more command:

  $ more sample.file  
  Mon Feb 3 12:56:26 PST 1993  
  $
As you can see, the contents of sample.file now contains the output from the date command. (See Chapter 3, "Working with Files and Directories," for information on the more command.)
Sometimes you may want to redirect the output of one command as input to another command. A set of commands strung together in this fashion is called a pipeline. The symbol for this type of redirection is a vertical bar (|) called a pipe.
For example, instead of saving the output of a command to a file, you may want to direct it as input to the command for printing (lp) by using the pipe symbol (|). To send the output from the date command directly to the printer, you would enter the following:

  $ date | lp  
  $
This would print the results of the date command. (See "Submitting Print Requests to the Default Printer" in Chapter 8, "Using Printers," for information on using the lp command to print files.)
The command redirection examples shown here are quite simple, but when you learn more advanced commands, you will find that there are many uses for piping and redirection.

Running Commands in the Background

Often, it is convenient to initiate a command from the command prompt and then place that command in the background. When a command is not placed in the background, the next prompt does not appear until the command completes its task. However, some commands can take a long time to finish, and you might prefer to enter other commands in the meantime.
If you know you want to run a command in the background, type an ampersand (&) after the command as shown below. The number that follows is the process id:

  $ bigjob &  
  [1] 21414  
  $
The command bigjob will now run in the background, and you can continue to enter other commands. After the job completes, you will see a message similar to the following the next time you enter another command, such as date in this example:

  $ date  
  Mon Feb 3 10:23:25 PST 1992  
  [1]  + Done    bigjob  
  $
If you are likely to log off before a background job completes, use the nohup (no hangup) command to allow the job to complete, as shown in this example. Otherwise, the background job will be terminated when you log off:

  $ nohup bigjob &  
  [1] 21414  
  $
Getting Help with OS Commands

Getting Help with OS Commands

This section describes various on-line help features. These features allow you to view reference information from your workstation or terminal.
Note - The features described here are in addition to the OpenWindows help facilities.

Displaying Manual Pages with man

If you know the name of a command, but you are not sure what it does, the man command can be helpful. Type the following to find out more about this command:

  $ man man
This command displays the first part of a SunOS manual reference page in the window display area. Press the Space Bar to see the next screen, or press the Q key to quit and return to the command prompt. Use the man command to see all the available options and to show the proper command syntax. Manual reference pages often provide examples which illustrate various uses of the command.

Displaying a One-line Summary with whatis

If you want just a one-line summary of the command's function, use the whatis command, as shown here:

  $ whatis date  
  date (1)           -display or set the date  
  $
Notice the number in parentheses after the command name in the above example. This number indicates the section to which this command belongs. Commands are grouped into various categories according to function. Most user commands are in section 1. By common convention, the section number is
displayed in parentheses after the name of the command. If you look for the printed manual reference page for a command, you will find it in alphabetical order within its group.

Keyword Lookup with apropos

Suppose you know what you want to do, but you're not sure of the command to use. Then the apropos command is helpful. This command locates commands by keyword lookup. The apropos command lists all commands whose one-line summaries contain any keywords you supply. This can lead to a very lengthy display, as some keywords may appear in many places.
For some examples of apropos output, try entering one or more of the following:
  • apropos who
  • apropos execute
  • apropos apropos
If you do enter a keyword that generates an unreasonably lengthy display, pressing Ctrl-C interrupts the display and returns you to the command prompt. (Hold down the Control key and press "c".)
3 Working with Files and Directories

Working with Files and Directories

3

The SunOS command line is used to manipulate files and directories. You type in the file and directory names in conjunction with SunOS commands to carry out specific operations. This is different than using the OpenWindows File Manager, where files are displayed as icons that can be clicked up on and moved, and commands are selected from menus.
This chapter introduces you to the concepts and procedures used to work with files and directories from the SunOS command line. These operations apply to any SunOS command line, whether you are using a Shell or Command Tool in the OpenWindows environment or are logged in from a remote terminal. To fully make use of the SunOS operating system it is essential for you to understand the concepts presented in this chapter.
File Concepts

File Concepts

The file is the basic unit in the SunOS operating system. Almost everything is treated as a file, including:
  • Documents--These include text files, such as letters or reports, computer source code, or anything else that you write and want to save.
  • Commands--Most commands are executable files; that is, they are files you can execute to run a particular program. For example, the date command that you saw in the previous chapter, which executes a program that provides the current date, is an executable file.
  • Devices--Your terminal, printer, and disk drive(s) are all treated as files.
  • Directories--A directory is simply a file that contains other files.
The following section explains the commands available for creating, listing, copying, moving, and deleting files. You'll also see how to list the contents of a file and how to determine the nature of a file.
Using File Commands

Using File Commands

Each of the commands presented in this section includes an example of how the command is used. Try the examples as you read the text. This practice will make the commands and their respective concepts easier to understand and remember.

Before You Begin

Before you start experimenting with files, make sure that you are in your home directory. This is a directory established for you by your system administrator when your account was created. If you perform the tasks shown in the following examples from your home directory, you'll be less likely to create, copy, move, or (worst of all) delete files within portions of the system that other users expect to remain unchanged.
To make certain that you are indeed in your home directory, type the cd (change directory) command by itself. This moves you to your home (default) directory. Then type the pwd (print working directory) command to display your current location within the filesystem. The directory displayed is your home directory:

  $ cd  
  $ pwd  
  /export/home/username
In this example, the user's home directory is /export/home/username, where username is the name of the user owning the home directory.

Creating a Test File

Use the touch command to create an empty file. If a file by the name you specify doesn't already exist, the touch command creates an empty file (if the file already exists, touch updates the last file access time).

  $ touch tempfile  
  $

Listing Files (ls)

Now list the file with the ls command to verify that you've created it:

  $ ls tempfile  
  tempfile
When you enter the ls command by itself, it lists all the files in your current location. If you enter the ls command with a specific file name, it lists only that file, if the file exists.
For more information on the ls(1) command, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.

Copying Files (cp)

Use the cp command to copy tempfile to a file called copyfile:

  $ cp tempfile copyfile  
  $
Now try listing both files. Notice that both names end with the characters "file." You can use the wildcard character, asterisk (*), to stand for any character or sequence of characters. Therefore, the command ls *file should list both tempfile and copyfile (and any other file in this directory with a name that ends with file):

  $ ls *file  
  copyfile    tempfile
Notice that copyfile is listed first. Files are listed in alphabetical order. (Capital letters and numbers precede lowercase letters.)
For detailed information on the cp(1) command, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.

Moving and Renaming Files (mv)

You can both move and rename files using the same command, mv (move). In this example, use the mv command to rename tempfile to emptyfile:

  $ mv tempfile emptyfile  
  $
Now list both files again to verify the change:

  $ ls *file  
  copyfile    emptyfile
As you can see, tempfile is replaced by emptyfile.
For more information on the mv(1) command, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.

Deleting Files (rm)

Finally, use the rm (remove) command to delete copyfile, and verify the result with the ls command:

  $ rm copyfile  
  $ ls *file  
  emptyfile
CAUTION Caution - Once you delete a file, it is gone for good. Unless there is a backup copy, the file cannot be restored. Be careful when using the rm command, and be particularly careful when using rm with the wildcard character (*). Files removed with rm cannot be recovered.
For more detailed information on the rm(1)command, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.

Displaying File Contents (more, cat)

Use the more command to display the contents of a file. Type more followed by the name of the file to be displayed. The contents of the file scrolls down the screen. If the file is longer than one screen, this message appears:

  --More--(nn%)  [Press space to continue, 'q' to quit.]
where nn is the percentage of the file already displayed.
You can also use the cat command to display the contents of a file, but it flashes through the entire file rapidly without pausing. The cat (concatenate) command is more often used to join two or more files into one large file, as in this example:

  $ cat file1 file2 file3 > bigfile  
  $ ls *file  
  bigfile  
  file1  
  file2  
  file3  
  $
For further information on the more(1) or cat(1) commands, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.

Displaying File Type (file)

Some files, such as binary files and executable files, are not printable and cannot be displayed on the screen. The file command can be handy if you're not sure of the file type.
Use the file command to show the file type:

  $ file copyfile  
  copyfile:    ascii text
Directories and Hierarchy

Directories and Hierarchy

By now you know how to list, copy, rename, and delete files. However, you may be wondering about larger issues. Where are these files located? This section discusses the directory hierarchy. Read the following narrative carefully, and then try the examples in the sections that follow.

Directory Hierarchy

Files are grouped into directories, which are themselves organized in a hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy is the "root" directory, symbolized by "/".
As shown in the following example, Figure 3-1, each directory in the file system can have many directories within it. The convention is to distinguish directory levels with the / character. With this in mind, notice that the directory / (root) contains the subdirectories /usr, /bin, /home and /lib, among others. The subdirectory /home contains user1, user2, and user3.
You specify directories (and files within them) by including the names of the directories they're in. This is called a path name. For example, the path name for the user3 directory in the illustration above is /home/user3.

Figure 3-1 File System Hierarchy

All subdirectory and file names within a directory must be unique. However, names within different directories can be the same. For example, the directory /usr contains the subdirectory /usr/lib. There is no conflict between /usr/lib and /lib because the path names are different.
Path names for files work exactly like path names for directories. The path name of a file describes that file's place within the file system hierarchy. For example, if the /home/user2 directory contains a file called report5, the path name for this file is /home/user2/report5. This shows that the file report5 is within the directory user2, which is within the directory home, which is within the root (/) directory.
Directories can contain only subdirectories, only files, or both.

Print Working Directory (pwd)

The command pwd (print working directory) tells you where you are in the file system hierarchy:

  $ pwd  
  /home/user1
Your output will look somewhat different from that in the example, as your directory structure will be different. Remember that your working directory is your current location within the file system hierarchy.

Your Home Directory

Every user has a home directory. When you first open the Command Tool or Shell Tool window in the OpenWindows environment, your initial location (working directory) is your home directory. This directory is established for you by the system administrator when your account is created.

Change Working Directory (cd)

The cd (change directory) command allows you to move around within the file system hierarchy:

  $ cd /usr/lib  
  $ pwd  
  /usr/lib
When you type the cd command by itself, you return to your home directory. For example, if your home directory was /home/user1:

  $ cd  
  $ pwd  
  /home/user1
In the C shell, the tilde (~) is used as a shortcut for specifying your home directory. For example, you would type the following to change to the subdirectory music within your home directory:

  example% cd ~/music
You can also use this shortcut to specify another user's home directory. For example:

  example% cd ~username
where username is another user's login name, would change to that user's home directory.
Note - If you are using the Bourne shell, the ~ shortcut will not work.
If you are using the Bourne shell, it may be possible that your system administrator has configured the system so that you can type $home to specify your home directory. If this is the case, then typing:

  $ $home/music
changes you to the subdirectory music in your home directory. Likewise, typing:

  $ $homeusername
changes you to the specified user's home directory, where username represents another user's login name.
The directory immediately "above" a subdirectory is called the parent directory. In the preceding example, /home is the parent directory of /home/user1. The symbol .. ("dot-dot") represents the parent directory. Therefore, the command cd .. changes the working directory to the parent directory, as in this example:

  $ pwd  
  /home/user1  
  $ cd ..  
  $ pwd  
  /home
Suppose your current working directory is /home/user1 and you want to work with some files in /home/user2. Here is a useful shortcut:

  $ pwd  
  /home/user1  
  $ cd ../user2  
  $ pwd  
  /home/user2
../user2 tells the system to look in the parent directory for user2. As you can see, this is much easier than typing the entire path name /home/user2.

Creating a Directory (mkdir)

It is easy to create a new directory. Type the mkdir command followed by the name of the new directory:

  $ mkdir veggies  
  $ cd veggies  
  $ mkdir broccoli  
  $ cd broccoli  
  $ pwd  
  /home/user2/veggies/broccoli

Relative Path Names

The full path name of a directory or a file begins with a slash (/) and describes the entire directory structure between that file (or directory) and the root directory. However, you can often use a much shorter name which defines the file or directory relative to the current working directory.
When you are in a parent directory, you can move to a subdirectory using only the directory name and not the full path name. In the previous example, the command cd veggies uses the relative path name of the directory veggies. If the current working directory is /home/user2, the full path name of this directory is /home/user2/veggies.
Try creating several different subdirectories, and then move around within this directory structure. Use both full path names and relative path names, and confirm your location with the pwd command.

Moving and Renaming Directories

You rename a directory by moving it to a different name. Use the mv command to rename directories:

  $ pwd  
  /home/user2/veggies  
  $ ls  
  broccoli  
  $ mv broccoli carrots  
  $ ls  
  carrots
You can also use mv to move a directory to a location within another directory:

  $ pwd  
  /home/user2/veggies  
  $ ls  
  carrots  
  $ mv carrots ../veggies2  
  $ ls ../veggies2  
  carrots
In this example, the directory carrots is moved from veggies to veggies2 with the mv command.

Copying Directories

Use the cp -r command to copy directories and the files they contain:

  $ cp -r veggies veggies3  
  $
This command copies all files and subdirectories within the directory veggies to a new directory veggies3. This is a recursive copy, as designated by the -r option. If you attempt to copy a directory without using this option, you will see an error message.

Removing Directories (rmdir)

To remove an empty directory, use the rmdir command as follows:

  $ rmdir veggies3  
  $
If the directory still contains files or subdirectories, the rmdir command will not remove the directory.
Use rm -r (adding the recursive option -r to the rm command) to remove a directory and all its contents, including any subdirectories and their files, as follows:

  $ rm -r veggies3  
  $
CAUTION Caution - Directories removed with the rmdir command cannot be recovered, nor can directories and their contents removed with the rm -r command.
Looking at Differences Between Files ( diff )

Looking at Differences Between Files (diff)

It often happens that different people with access to a file make copies of the file and then edit their copies. diff will show you the specific differences between versions of an ASCII file. The command:

  $ diff leftfile rightfile
scans each line in leftfile and rightfile looking for differences. When it finds a line (or lines) that differ, it determines whether the difference is the result of an addition, a deletion, or a change to the line, and how many lines are affected. It tells you the respective line number(s) in each file, followed by the relevant text from each.
If the difference is the result of an addition, diff displays a line of the form:
l[,l] a r[,r]
where l is a line number in leftfile and r is a line number in rightfile.
If the difference is the result of a deletion, diff uses a d in place of a; if it is the result of a change on the line, diff uses a c.
The relevant lines from both files immediately follow the line number information. Text from leftfile is preceded by a left angle bracket (<). Text from rightfile is preceded by a right angle bracket (>).
This example shows two sample files, followed by their diff output:

  $ cat sched.7.15  
  Week of 7/15  
  
  Day:  Time:        Action Item:          Details:  
  
  T     10:00        Hardware mtg.         every other week  
  W     1:30         Software mtg.  
  T     3:00         Docs. mtg.  
  F     1:00         Interview  
  $ cat sched.7.22  
  Week of 7/22  
  
  Day:  Time:        Action Item:          Details:  
  
  M     8:30         Staff mtg.            all day  
  T     10:00        Hardware mtg.         every other week  
  W     1:30         Software mtg.  
  T     3:00         Docs. mtg.  
  $ diff sched.7.15 sched.7.22  
  1c1  
  < Week of 7/15  
  ---  
  > Week of 7/22  
  4a5  
  > M     8:30         Staff mtg.            all day  
  8d8  
  < F     1:00         Interview
If the two files to be compared are identical, there is no output from diff.
The diff(1) command has many more options than those discussed here. For more information, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.

Comparing Three Different Files (diff3)

If you have three versions of a file that you want to compare at once, use the diff3 command as follows:

  $ diff3 file1 file2 file3
diff3 compares three versions of a file and publishes disagreeing ranges of text flagged with these codes:
==== all three files differ
====1 file1 is different
====2 file2 is different
====3 file3 is different

Using bdiff on Large Files

If you are comparing very large files, use bdiff instead of diff. Both programs work in a similar manner:

  $ bdiff leftfile rightfile
Use bdiff instead of diff for files longer than 3500 lines or so.
Looking Up Files ( find )

Looking Up Files (find)

The find command searches for files that meet conditions you specify, starting from a directory you name. For example, you might search for filenames that match a certain pattern or that have been modified within a specified time frame.
Unlike most commands, find options are several characters long, and the name of the starting directory must precede them on the command line as follows:

  $ find directory options
where directory is the name of the starting directory and options represents the options for the find command.
Each option describes a criterion for selecting a file. A file must meet all criteria to be selected. Thus, the more options you apply, the narrower the field becomes. The -print option indicates that you want the results to be displayed. (As described later on, you can use find to run commands. You may want find to omit the display of selected files in that case.)
The -name filename option tells find to select files that match filename. Here filename is taken to be the rightmost component of a file's full path name. For example, the rightmost component of the file /usr/lib/calendar is calendar. This portion of a file's name is often called its base name.
For example, to see which files within the current directory and its subdirectories end in s, type:

  $ find . -name '*s' -print  
  ./programs  
  ./programs/graphics  
  ./programs/graphics/gks  
  ./src/gks  
  $
Other options include:
-name filename
Selects files whose rightmost component matches filename. Surround filename with single quotes if it includes filename substitution patterns.
-user userid
Selects files owned by userid. userid can be either a login name or user ID number.
-group group

  Selects files belonging to group.

-m time n

  Selects files that have been modified within n days.

-newer checkfile
Selects files modified more recently than checkfile.
You can specify an order of precedence by combining options within (escaped) parentheses (for example, \(options\) ). Within escaped parentheses, you can use the -o flag between options to indicate that find should select files that qualify under either category, rather than just those files that qualify under both categories:

  $ find . \( -name AAA -o -name BBB \) -print  
  ./AAA  
  ./BBB
You can invert the sense of an option by prepending an escaped exclamation point. find then selects files for which the option does not apply:

  $ find . \!-name BBB -print  
  ./AAA
You can also use find to apply commands to the files it selects with the
-exec command '{}' \;
option. This option is terminated with an escaped semicolon (\;). The quoted braces are replaced with the filenames that find selects.
As an example, you can use find to automatically remove temporary work files. If you name your temporary files consistently, you can use find to seek them out and destroy them wherever they lurk. For example, if you name your temporary files junk or dummy, this command will find them and remove them:

  $ find . \( -name junk -o -name dummy \) -exec rm '{}' \;
For more information on find(1), refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
File and Directory Security

File and Directory Security

Note - Read this section carefully. A clear understanding of file permissions is often important in day-to-day work.
File permissions help to protect files and directories from unauthorized reading and writing. Often you will have files you wish to allow others to read but not change. In other cases, you may have executable files (programs) to share. File permissions allow you to control access to your files.
These are the basic file and directory permission types:
  • r - read permission. A file must be readable to be examined or copied. A directory must be readable for you to list its contents.
  • w - write permission. A file must be writable in order for you to modify it, remove it, or rename it. A directory must be writable in order for you to add or delete files in it.
  • x - execute permission. A file with executable permissions is one you can run, such as a program. A directory must be executable for you to gain access to any of its subdirectories.
There are three categories of users for which you can set permissions:
  • Self - The user
  • Group - Other users within the same group as the user (for example, all accounting users). Groups are established and maintained by the system administrator.
  • Others - Everyone else

Displaying Permissions and Status (ls -l)

You have already used the ls command to list files. The ls command has many options. Use the -l option to display a long format list. Files and directories are listed in alphabetical order. Figure 3-2 illustrates this method for displaying files:

Figure 3-2 Displaying Permissions and Status

The very first character on the line indicates the file type. A dash (-) is an ordinary file; a d indicates a directory, and other characters can indicate other special file types.
The next nine characters indicate the permissions for the file or directory. The nine characters consist of three groups of three, showing the permissions for the owner, the owner's group, and the world, respectively. The permissions for emptyfile are rw-r--r--, indicating that the owner can read and write this file, everyone can read it, and no one can execute it. The permissions for the directory veggies2 are rwxr-xr-x, indicating that everyone has read and execute permissions, but only the owner can write to it.
In addition to file permissions, the display shows the following information:
  • Number of links to this file or directory
  • Name of the owner (user2 in this case)
  • Number of bytes (characters) in the file
  • Date and time the file or directory was last updated
  • Name of the file or directory
Use the cd command to move to your home directory, and try the ls -l command. Your results will differ from the example, of course.
Now try typing a command such as the following:

  $ ls -l dirname
where dirname is the name of an actual directory within your file system. When you give the name of a directory, the ls -l command prints information on all the files and directories (if any) within that directory.

Listing "Hidden" Files (ls -a)

There are some files that are not listed by the ordinary ls command. These files have names beginning with the character . (called "dot"), such as .cshrc, .login and .profile. Use the ls -a command to list these dot files:

  $ ls -a  
  .  
  ..  
  .cshrc  
  .login  
  .profile  
  emptyfile
Notice that the files beginning with . are listed before the other files. There are two special files in this listing: the file . is the reference for the current directory, and the file .. is the reference for the parent directory.
Generally speaking, files that begin with . are used by system utilities and are not usually modified by the user. There are a few exceptions to this.

Changing Permissions (chmod)

Use the chmod command to change permissions for a file or directory. You must be the owner of a file or directory, or have root access, to change its permissions. The general form of the chmod command is:

  chmod  permissions name
where permissions indicates the permissions to be changed and name is the name of the affected file or directory.
The permissions can be specified in several ways. Here is one of the forms which is easiest to use:
  1. Use one or more letters indicating the users involved:

  • u (for the user)
  • g (for group)
  • o (for others)
  • a (for all three of the above categories)
  1. Indicate whether the permissions are to be added (+) or removed (-).

  2. Use one or more letters indicating the permissions involved:

  • r (for read)
  • w (for write)
  • x (for execute)
In the following example, write permission is added to the directory carrots for users belonging to the same group (thus, permissions is g+w and name is carrots):

  $ ls -l carrots  
  drwxr-xr-x  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:15 carrots  
  $ chmod g+w carrots  
  $ ls -l carrots  
  drwxrwxr-x  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:15 carrots  
  $
As you can see, the hyphen (-) in the set of characters for group is changed to a w as a result of this command.
To make this same directory unreadable and unexecutable by other users outside your group (permissions is o-rx), you would enter the following:

  $ ls -l carrots  
  drwxrwxr-x  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:15 carrots  
  $ chmod o-rx carrots  
  $ ls -l carrots  
  drwxrwx---  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:15 carrots  
  $
Now, the r (for read) and the x (for execute) in the set of characters for other users are both changed to hyphens (-).
When you create a new file or directory, the system automatically assigns permissions.
In general, the default settings for new files are:
-rw-r--r--
and for new directories are:
drwxr-xr-x
So, to make a new file turnip executable by its owner (user2), you would enter the following:

  $ ls -l turnip  
  -rw-r--r--  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 12:27 turnip  
  $ chmod u+x turnip  
  $ ls -l turnip  
  -rwxr--r--  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 12:27 turnip  
  $
If you want to affect all three categories of users at once, use the a option. To make a new file garlic executable by everyone, you would enter the following:

  $ ls -l garlic  
  -rw-r--r--  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:31 garlic  
  $ chmod a+x garlic  
  $ ls -l garlic  
  -rwxr-xr-x  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:31 garlic  
  $
As a result, the x indicator appears in all three categories.
You can also change permissions for groups of files and directories using the * wildcard character. For example, you would enter the following to change the permissions for all the files in the current directory veggies so that the files can be written by you alone:

  $ pwd  
  /home/user2/veggies  
  $ ls -l  
  -rwxrwxrwx  3 user2          21032 Feb 12 10:31 beats  
  -rwxrwxrwx  2 user2             68 Feb 10 11:09 corn  
  -rwxrwxrwx  3 user2          12675 Feb 08 09:31 garlic  
  -rwxrwxrwx  1 user2           1024 Feb 14 16:38 onions  
  $ chmod go-w *  
  $ ls -l  
  -rwxr-xr-x  3 user2          21032 Feb 12 10:31 beats  
  -rwxr-xr-x  2 user2             68 Feb 10 11:09 corn  
  -rwxr-xr-x  3 user2          12675 Feb 08 09:31 garlic  
  -rwxr-xr-x  1 user2           1024 Feb 14 16:38 onions  
  $
The pwd command is included in this example to illustrate that the directory on which you perform this chmod operation must be the current directory.

Setting Absolute Permissions

Up to this point, the discussion on permissions has only included using the chmod command to change permissions relative to their current settings. Using a different form of the chmod command, which applies numeric codes to specify permissions, you can set the permissions for a file or directory absolutely.
The syntax for this usage of the chmod command is:
chmod numcode name
where numcode is the numeric code and name is the name of the file or directory for which you are changing permissions.
The complete numeric code consists of three numbers. One number is used for each of the three categories: user, group, and others. For example the following command sets absolute read, write, and execute permissions for the user and the group, and execute permissions only for others:

  $ chmod 771 garlic
Table 3-1 illustrates how the permissions described for garlic are represented by the code 771.
Table 3-1 Permissions for garlic
PermissionUserGroupOthers
Read440
Write220
Execute111
Total771
Each of the columns in Table 3-1 represents one of the categories: user, group, and others. To set read permissions, you add 4 to the appropriate column. To set write permissions, you add 2. To add execute permissions, you add 1. The total in all three columns in the last row of the table is the complete numeric code.
The following is another example of this method for setting absolute permissions, with the ls -l command included to demonstrate the results:

  $ ls -l onion  
  -rw-r--r--  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:46 onion  
  $ chmod 755 onion  
  $ ls -l onion  
  -rwxr-xr-x  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:48 onion  
  $
The permissions for the file onion are set so that the user can read, write, and execute; group members can read and execute; and others can also read and execute. Table 3-2 provides the breakdown of the numeric code used to set the permissions for onion.
Table 3-2 Permissions for onion
PermissionUserGroupOthers
Read444
Write200
Execute111
Total755
Of course, to provide read, write, and execute permissions for the file cabbage to yourself, your group, and all other users, you would enter the following:

  $ ls -l cabbage  
  -rw-r--r--  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:51 cabbage  
  $ chmod 777 cabbage  
  $ ls -l cabbage  
  -rwxrwxrwx  3 user2           1024 Feb 10 11:53 cabbage  
  $
Table 3-3 provides the breakdown for this example.
Table 3-3 Permissions for cabbage
PermissionUserGroupOthers
Read444
Write222
Execute111
Total777
The numeric code 777 represents the maximum level of permissions you can provide.
Similar to changing relative permissions, you can also use the wildcard character * to set absolute permissions for all in the files in the current directory. For example, to set absolute permissions for all files in the current directory veggies so that you have read, write, and execute permissions; your group has read and execute permissions; and all other users have execute permissions only, you would enter the following:

  $ pwd  
  /home/user2/veggies  
  $ ls -l  
  -rwxrwxrwx  3 user2          21032 Feb 12 10:31 beats  
  -rwxrwxrwx  2 user2             68 Feb 10 11:09 corn  
  -rwxrwxrwx  3 user2          12675 Feb 08 09:31 garlic  
  -rwxrwxrwx  1 user2           1024 Feb 14 16:38 onions  
  $ chmod 751 *  
  $ ls -l  
  -rwxr-x--x  3 user2          21032 Feb 12 10:31 beats  
  -rwxr-x--x  2 user2             68 Feb 10 11:09 corn  
  -rwxr-x--x  3 user2          12675 Feb 08 09:31 garlic  
  -rwxr-x--x  1 user2           1024 Feb 14 16:38 onions  
  $
The pwd command is included in this example to illustrate that the directory on which you perform this operation must be the current directory. The ls -l command is shown only to illustrate the changes in permissions. When setting absolute permissions, it's not necessary to know what the permissions are currently.
For more information on the chmod(1) command, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
4 Searching Files

Searching Files

4

This chapter describes how to search directories and files for keywords and strings using the SunOS command grep.
Searching for Patterns with grep

Searching for Patterns with grep

To search for a particular character string in a file, use the grep command. The basic syntax of the grep command is:

  $ grep string file
where string is the word or phrase you want to find, and file is the file to be searched.
Note - A string is one or more characters; a single letter is a string, as is a word or a sentence. Strings may include "white space," punctuation, and invisible (control) characters.
For example, to find Edgar Allan Poe's telephone extension, type grep, all or part of his name, and the file containing the information:

  $ grep Poe extensions  
  Edgar Allan Poe     x72836  
  $
Note that more than one line may match the pattern you give:

  $ grep Allan extensions  
  David Allan         x76438  
  Edgar Allan Poe     x72836  
  $ grep Al extensions  
  Louisa May Alcott   x74236  
  David Allan         x76438  
  Edgar Allan Poe     x72836  
  $
grep is case-sensitive; that is, you must match the pattern with respect to uppercase and lowercase letters:

  $ grep allan extensions  
  $ grep Allan extensions  
  David Allan         x76438  
  Edgar Allan Poe     x72836  
  $
Note that grep failed in the first try because none of the entries began with a lowercase "a."

grep as a Filter

grep is very often used as a "filter" with other commands. It allows you to filter out useless information from the output of commands. To use grep as a filter, you must pipe the output of the command through grep. The symbol for pipe is "|".
The following example displays files ending in ".ps" that were created in the month of May:

  $ ls -l *.ps | grep May
The first part of this command line,

  ls -l *.ps
produces a list of files:

  $ ls -l *.ps  
  -rw-r--r--  1 elvis       7228 Apr 22 15:07 change.ps  
  -rw-r--r--  1 elvis       2356 May 22 12:56 clock.ps  
  -rw-r--r--  1 elvis       1567 Jun 22 12:56 cmdtool.ps  
  -rw-r--r--  1 elvis      10198 Jun 22 15:07 command.ps  
  -rw-r--r--  1 elvis       5644 May 22 15:07 buttons.ps  
  $
The second part,

  | grep May
pipes that list through grep, looking for the pattern May:

  $ ls -l *.ps | grep May  
  -rw-r--r--  1 elvis       2356 May 22 12:56 clock.ps  
  -rw-r--r--  1 elvis       5644 May 22 15:07 buttons.ps  
  $

grep with Multi-Word Strings

To find a pattern that is more than one word long, enclose the string with single or double quotation marks:

  $ grep "Louisa May" extensions  
  Louisa May Alcott     x74236  
  $
grep can search for a string in groups of files. When it finds a pattern that matches in more than one file, it prints the name of the file, followed by a colon, then the line matching the pattern:

  $ grep ar *  
  actors:Humphrey Bogart  
  alaska:Alaska is the largest state in the United States.  
  wilde:book.  Books are well written or badly written.  
  $

Searching for Lines without a Certain String

To search for all the lines of a file that don't contain a certain string, use the -v option to grep. The following example shows how to find all of the lines in the user medici's home directory files that don't contain the letter e:

  $ ls  
  actors    alaska    hinterland    tutors    wilde  
  $ grep -v e *  
  actors:Mon Mar 14 10:00 PST 1936  
  wilde:That is all.  
  $

More on grep

You can also use the grep command to search for targets defined as patterns using regular expressions. Regular expressions consist of letters and numbers, in addition to characters with special meaning to grep. These special characters, called metacharacters, also have special meaning to the system and need to be quoted or escaped. Whenever you use a grep regular expression at the command prompt, surround it with quotes, or escape metacharacters (such as & ! . * $ ? and \) with a backslash (\).
  • A caret (^) indicates the beginning of the line. So the command:

  $ grep '^b' list
finds any line in the file list starting with "b."
  • A dollar-sign ($) indicates the end of the line. The command:

  $ grep 'b$' list
displays any line in which "b" is the last character on the line. And the command:

  $ grep '^b$' list
displays any line in list where "b" is the only character on the line.
  • Within a regular expression, dot (.) finds any single character. So the command:

  $ grep 'an.' list
would match any three characters with "an" as the first two, including "any," "and," "management," and "plan" (because spaces count, too).
  • When an asterisk (*) follows a character, grep interprets it as "zero or more instances of that character." When the asterisk follows a regular expression, grep interprets it as "zero or more instances of characters matching the pattern."

    Because it includes zero occurrences, usage of the asterisk is a little non-intuitive. Suppose you want to find all words with the letters "qu" in them. Typing:


  $ grep 'qu*' list
will work as expected. However, if you wanted to find all words containing the letter "n," you would have to type:

  $ grep 'nn*' list
If you wanted to find all words containing the pattern "nn," you would have to type:

  $ grep 'nnn*' list
You may want to try this to see what happens otherwise.
  • To match zero or more occurrences of any character in list, type:

  $ grep .* list

Searching for Metacharacters

Suppose you want to find lines in the text that have a dollar sign ($) in them. Preceding the dollar sign in the regular expression with a backslash (\) tells grep to ignore (escape) its special meaning. This is true for the other metacharacters (& ! . * ? and \ itself) as well.
For example, the expression

  $ grep ^\.
matches lines starting with a period, and is especially useful when searching for nroff or troff formatting requests (which begin with a period).
The following table, Table 4-1, provides a list of the more commonly used search pattern elements you can use with grep.
Table 4-1 grep Search Pattern Elements
CharacterMatches
^The beginning of a text line
$The end of a text line
.Any single character
[...]Any single character in the bracketed list or range
[^...]Any character not in the list or range
*Zero or more occurrences of the preceding character or regular expression
.*Zero or more occurrences of any single character
\Escapes special meaning of next character
Note that these search characters can also be used in vi text editor searches.

Single or Double Quotes on Command Lines

As shown earlier, you use quotation marks to surround text that you want to be interpreted as one word. For example, you would type the following to use grep to search all files for the phrase "dang it, boys":

  $ grep "dang it, boys" *
Single quotation marks (') can also be used to group multiword phrases into single units. Single quotation marks also make sure that certain characters, such as $, are interpreted literally. (The history metacharacter ! is always interpreted as such, even inside quotation marks, unless you escape it with a backslash.) In any case, it is a good idea to escape characters such as & ! $ ? . ; and \ when you want them taken as ordinary typographical characters.
For example, if you type:

  $ grep $ list
you will see all the lines in list. However, if you type:

  $ grep '\$' list
you will see only those lines with the "$" character in them.
For more information on the grep(1) command, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
5 Passwords, Processes, and Disk Storage

Passwords, Processes, and Disk Storage

5

SunOS provides a wealth of commands for doing a number of system tasks on the command line. This chapter describes how to set a password, how to list the processes running on your machine, how to kill unwanted processes, and how to display the amount of space being used on your disk.
Using a Password

Using a Password

For the sake of your system's security, SunOS requires the use of a password for your system. Changing your password several times a year helps to ensure that you are the only user with easy access to your account. If you believe someone has used your account without your permission, change your password immediately.
When choosing a password, keep the following in mind:
  • Choose a password that you can remember without writing it down. A password that you can't remember is worse than one that is too easily guessed.
  • Choose a password that is at least six characters long and contains at least one number.
  • Don't use your own name or initials or the name or initials of your spouse.
  • Don't use the names of pets or objects common to your interests.
  • Don't use all capital letters.
  • If you have more than one account, don't use the same password for every account.
  • Although you can use any character in your password, some characters, such as Ctrl-C, Ctrl-Z, Ctrl-U, Ctrl-S, Esc, Tab, and in some cases # and @ can be interpreted by the terminal as signals. These characters should be avoided. The terminal may interpret these as signals rather than text characters, and this would preclude you from properly typing in your password.

Changing Your Password

To change your personal password, type the passwd command:

  $ passwd  
  Changing password for hankw on worker  
  Old password:  
  New password:  
  Retype new password:  
  $
  1. When the system prompts you for Old Password:, type your current password.

    (If no password is currently assigned to your account, the system will skip the Old Password: prompt.) Note that the system does not echo (display) your password on the screen. This prevents other users from discovering your password.

  2. When the system prompts you for New Password:, type the password you've decided on.

    Again, the password you type does not echo on the screen.

  3. At the final prompt, Retype new password:, type your new password a second time.

    This is to verify that you typed exactly what you intended to type.

    If you don't enter your password precisely the way you did at the previous prompt, the system refuses to change your password and responds with Sorry. If this happens repeatedly, contact your system administrator to get a new password.

Note - Passwords containing fewer than six characters are not allowed. Also, a new password must differ from the old password by at least three characters.

Password Aging

If your system is using password aging (implemented with options to the passwd command), your password may have either a maximum, or a maximum and minimum lifespan. The lifespan of your password is set by your system administrator.
When the maturity date (or maximum age) of your password is reached, you are prompted to change your password. This occurs when you log in. The following is displayed:

  Your password has expired. Choose a new one.
The system then automatically runs the passwd program and prompts you for a new password.
If, for example, the minimum age of your password has been set for two weeks, and you try to change your password before that time has elapsed, the following is displayed:

  Sorry, less than 2 weeks since the last change.
To view aging information for your password, use the -d option to the passwd command:

  $ passwd -d  
  username 2-14-92 14 60
The display shows, in order, the date the current password was created, the minimum age, and the maximum age. (This information appears only if password aging has been implemented.)
For more information on passwd(1) and password aging, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
Processes and PIDs

Processes and PIDs

After each command is interpreted by the system, an independent process, with a unique process identification number (PID), is created to perform the command. The system uses the PID to track the current status of each process.

What Commands Are Running Now (ps)

Use the ps command to see what processes are currently running. In addition to showing the process identification number (listed under PID) for each process you own (created as a result of a command you typed), ps also shows you the terminal from which it was started (TTY), the cpu time it has used so far (TIME), and the command it is performing (COMMAND).
Adding the -l option to the ps command displays a variety of other information about the processes currently running, including the state of each process (listed under S). The codes used to show this are as follows:
  • O - Process is running on a processor.
  • S - Sleeping: Process is waiting for an event to complete.
  • R - Runnable: Process is on run queue.
  • I - Idle: Process is being created.
  • Z - Zombie state: Process terminated and parent not waiting.
  • T - Traced: Process stopped by a signal because parent is tracing it.
  • X - SXBRK state: Process is waiting for more primary memory.
Note that while ps is running, things can change. Since the ps command gives you only a snapshot of what's going on, it's only true for a split second after you type the command. The information may not be completely accurate by the time you see it.
The ps(1) command has more options than those covered here. Refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.

Terminating Processes (kill)

The kill command provides you with a direct way to stop command processes that you no longer want. This is particularly useful when you make a mistake typing a command that takes a long time to run.
To terminate a process:
  1. Type ps to find out the PID(s) for the process(es).

  2. Type kill followed by the PID(s).

The following example illustrates this procedure:

  $ ps  
  PID    TTY    TIME    COMMAND  
  1291   co     0:12    -bin/csh (csh)  
  3250   p0     0:00    ps  
  1286   p1     0:05    -bin/csh (csh)  
  3248   p1     0:05    vi commands  
  $ kill 1291  
  [1}  Terminated       -bin/csh/ (csh)  
  $
Note that a faster way of determining the right PID is to pipe ps output through grep as follows:

  $ ps | grep commandname
where commandname is the name of the command process you want to stop.
If you need to forcibly terminate a process, you can use the -9 option to the ps command as follows:

  $ kill -9 PID#
where PID# is the process identification number of the process you want to stop.
Managing Disk Storage

Managing Disk Storage

Since space on the disk is a limited resource, it is a very good idea to keep track of the space currently in use.

Displaying Disk Usage (df -k)

df -k shows you the amount of space currently in use on each disk that is mounted (directly accessible) to your system. Just type:

  $ df -k
to see the capacity of each disk mounted on your system, the amount available, and the percentage of space already in use.
File systems at or above 90 percent of capacity should be cleared of unnecessary files. You can do this either by moving them to a disk or tape that is less full, using cp to copy them and rm to remove them, or you can simply remove them outright. Of course, you should only perform these kinds of "housekeeping" chores on files that you own.

Displaying Directory Usage (du)

You can use du to display the usage of a directory and all its subdirectories in 512-byte blocks; that is, units of 512 bytes or characters.
du shows you the disk usage in each subdirectory. To get a list of subdirectories in a filesystem, cd to the pathname associated with that filesystem, and run the following pipeline:

  $ du | sort -r -n
This pipeline, which uses the reverse and numeric options of the sort command, pinpoints large directories. Use ls -l to examine the size (in bytes) and modification times of files within each directory. Old files, or text files over 100 Kbytes, often warrant storage offline.
6 Using the vi Editor

Using thevi Editor

6

vi (pronounced "vee-eye," short for visual display editor) is the standard SunOS text editor. Since vi is not window-based, this multipurpose editor can be used on any kind of terminal to edit a wide range of file types.
You can enter and edit text with vi, but it is not a word-processor. It was not created to process formatted text in the familiar manner of a commercial word-processor. To produce formatted printouts, vi relies on a typesetting emulation program, such as nroff, troff, or ditroff. These programs allow you to format vi text by inserting codes that are then interpreted by the emulator.
vi contains a huge array of commands, many of which have overlapping functions. At first, it's quite normal for new users to feel overloaded by this. The purpose of this chapter, however, is to provide you with an overview of the most essential vi commands. As you begin to use vi, you'll find that it is an extremely powerful text editor, and that it may take you a while to become proficient.
Note that there is a read-only version of vi called view. When you open a file with view, you can use vi commands, but you cannot write (or save) your changes. This allows you or others to read a vi file without accidentally changing it.
Starting vi

Starting vi

In the sub-sections that follow, you'll learn how to start vi, enter text in a file, save (write) the file, and quit vi. You'll also create a practice file that you'll use for the rest of this chapter.

Creating a File

Start vi and edit the file paint as shown in this example:

  $ vi paint
If paint already exists, vi will open the existing file; if this is a new file, vi will create it. For the purposes of this example, paint should be a new file.
The vi editing screen appears in a moment:

Figure 6-1 The vi Editing Screen

The cursor appears in the upper left corner of the screen. Blank lines are indicated by a vertical series of tildes (~).
Note that you can also start vi without specifying a file name by just typing vi. You can then name the file later when you exit vi.

The Status Line

The last line of the screen, called the status line, shows the name of the file and the number of lines and characters in the file. When you create a new file, as is the case with our example, the status line indicates that it's a new file.
The Two Modes of vi

The Two Modes of vi

There are two modes of operation in vi: entry mode and command mode. You use entry mode to enter text into a file, while command mode is used to enter commands that perform specific vi functions. Command mode is the default mode for vi.
Since vi doesn't indicate which mode you're currently in, distinguishing between command mode and entry mode is probably the single greatest cause of confusion among new vi users. However, if you remember just a few basic concepts from the beginning, you should be able to avoid most of the usual "vi stress."
When you first open a vi file, it's always in command mode. Before you can enter text in the file, you must type one of the vi entry commands, such as i ("insert"), to insert text at the current cursor location, or a ("append"), to insert text after the current cursor location. (These and other vi entry commands are covered in greater detail later in this chapter.)
Whenever you want to return vi to command mode, press Esc. If you're not sure which mode vi is presently in, simply press Esc to make sure it's in command mode and continue from there. If you press Esc while vi is already in command mode, the system beeps and the screen flashes, but no harm is done.

Entry Mode

To enter text in the sample file paint, type the vi "insert" command i. This takes vi out of command mode and puts it into entry mode.
Now type a few short lines of text, ending every line with a Return. Characters you type appear to the left of the cursor and push any existing characters to the right. For the moment, you can correct your mistakes by backspacing and retyping a line before you press Return. Later you will learn how to edit the text you entered.
When you finish entering text in paint, press Esc to return to command mode. The cursor moves back onto the last character entered. Now you can enter more vi commands.
If vi seems to act unpredictably, make sure that you are not in "Caps Lock" mode, which would cause your entries to be all capital letters. On some systems, the F1 key (which is usually located next to the Esc key) acts as the Caps Lock. Pressing this key instead of Esc is a common error.
Note - Occasionally you may need to instruct vi to clear or redraw the screen to eliminate, for example, extraneous system messages. To redraw the screen, enter command mode and press Ctrl-L. This is similar to the OpenWindows Refresh command.

Command Mode

When you open a file with vi, you are in command mode. In this mode, you can enter commands to implement a wide range of functions. Most vi commands consist of one or two letters and an optional number. Usually, there are upper and lowercase versions of commands that perform related but different functions. As an example, typing a appends the file to the right of the cursor, while typing A appends the file at the end of the line.
Most vi commands don't require that you press Return to execute them. Commands beginning with a colon (:), however, do require that you press Return after the command. Some discussions of the vi editor refer to commands preceded with a colon as a third, and uniquely separate mode of vi, last-line mode. This is because when you type the colon while in command mode, the colon and the remainder of what is typed appear on the bottom line of the screen. For the purpose of this discussion, however, all vi commands are initiated from command mode.
Commands preceded with a colon are actually ex commands. vi and ex are two separate interfaces to the same text editing program. While vi is a screen-oriented interface, ex is a line-oriented interface. The full set of ex commands is available from within vi. When you press the colon, you are actually switching to the line-oriented, ex interface. This allows you to perform many file manipulation commands without ever leaving vi. See "Using ex Commands," in this chapter, for further information.
Ending a Session

Ending a Session

When you edit a file in vi, your changes are not made directly to the file. Instead, they are applied to a copy of the file that vi creates in a temporary memory space called the buffer. The permanent disk copy of the file is modified only when you write (save) the contents of the buffer.
This arrangement has its good and bad points. On the one hand, it means that you can quit a file and discard all the changes that you have made during an editing session, leaving the disk copy intact. On the other hand, you could lose the (unsaved) contents of the work buffer if the system crashes. (People on remote terminals connected by phone lines are especially vulnerable to unplanned interruptions.)
The best policy is to save your work frequently, especially when making substantive changes.
CAUTION Caution - Although it's possible to run multiple, simultaneous vi sessions on one file, it is not a good idea. Great confusion could result when you try to determine which changes have been written to the file and which changes have been overwritten from a simultaneous session.

Saving Changes and Quitting vi

vi is rich in more or less synonymous commands that control saving the buffer contents to a file and quitting vi. These commands give you the option of saving, saving-and-quitting, or quitting-without-saving.

Saving

Save the contents of the buffer (write the buffer to the file on disk) by typing:

  :w
followed by Return.

Saving and Quitting

Save and quit by typing:

  :wq
followed by Return. Alternatively, type ZZ.
Note that the command ZZ is neither preceded by a colon nor followed by Return.

Quitting Without Saving

When you've made no changes to a file and simply want to quit, type:

  :q
followed by Return. If you have made changes, vi will not let you quit with :q. Instead, it will display the message, No write since last change (:quit! overrides).
If you do not want to save your changes, type:

  :q!
followed by Return.
Printing a File

Printing a File

Once you have quit a vi file, you can print the file with the following command:

  $ lp filename
where filename is the name of the vi file to be printed. This command prints the file to your default printer. The file is printed without any formatting, line for line, just as it appears on the screen. See Chapter 8, "Using Printers," for more information on printer commands.
Basic vi Commands

Basic vi Commands

The following sections explain several categories of vi commands. These include:
  • Moving around in a file
  • Inserting text
  • Changing and substituting text
  • Undoing changes to text
  • Deleting text
  • Copying and moving text
  • Repeating commands

Moving Around in a File

In the previous sections you learned how to create, save, print, and exit a vi file. Now that you have created a file, you'll need to understand the concepts required to navigate within it. Open your practice file now, and try out each of the commands discussed in this section.

Moving the Cursor

When you start vi, the cursor is in the upper left corner of the vi screen. In command mode, you can move the cursor with a number of keyboard commands. Certain letter keys, the arrow keys, and the Return key, Back Space (or Delete) key, and the Space Bar can all be used to move the cursor when you're in command mode.
Note - Most vi commands are case-sensitive; the "same" command typed in lowercase and uppercase characters could have radically different effects.
Moving with Arrow Keys If your machine is equipped with arrow keys, try these now. You should be able to move the cursor freely about the screen using combinations of the up, down, right, and left arrow keys. Notice that you can only move the cursor across already existing text or input spaces.
If you're using vi from a remote terminal, the arrow keys may not work correctly. This will depend on your terminal emulator. If the arrow keys don't work in your case, you can use the following substitutes:
  • To move left, press h.
  • To move right, press l.
  • To move down, press j.
  • To move up, press k.
Moving One Word Press w ("word") to move the cursor to the right one word at a time.
Press b ("back") to move the cursor to the left one word at a time.
Press W or B to move the cursor past the adjacent punctuation to the next or previous blank space.
Press e ("end") to move the cursor to the last character of the current word.
Moving to Start or End of Line Press ^ to move the cursor to the start of the current line.
Press $ to move the cursor to the end of the current line.
Moving Down One Line Press the Return key to move the cursor to the beginning of the next line down.
Moving Left Press the Back Space key to move the cursor one character to the left.
Moving Right Press the Space Bar to move the cursor one character to the right.
Moving to the Top Press H ("high") to move the cursor to the top of the screen.
Moving to the Middle Press M ("middle") to move the cursor to the middle of the screen.
Moving to the Bottom Press L ("low") to move the cursor to the bottom of the screen.

Paging and Scrolling

If you move down when the cursor is at the bottom of the screen, or move up when the cursor is at the top of the screen, you will see the text scroll up or down. This can be an effective way to display more text in a very short file, but it can be tedious to move this way through a long file.
You may have noticed that moving the cursor either past the bottom or past the top of the screen has the effect of scrolling text up or down. This works for a very short file, but it is a tedious way to move through a long file.
You can page or scroll backward or forward through a file, a screen or a half-screen at a time. (To try out these commands on paint, you might want to add text so you have a longer file to work with.)
Note that there is a fundamental difference between paging and scrolling. Scrolling actually scrolls the cursor up or down through the text a line at a time, as though it were on a paper scroll. Paging moves the cursor up or down through the text a screenful at a time. On a fast system, you might not notice the difference. However, if you're working from a remote terminal or in some other situation where your system is running slower than usual, this difference can become painfully apparent.
Page Forward One Screen To scroll forward (move down) one screenful, press Ctrl-F. (Hold down the Control key and press the F key.) The cursor moves to the upper left corner of the new screen.
Scroll Forward One-Half Screen To scroll forward one half of a screen, press Ctrl-D.
Page Backward One Screen To scroll backward (i.e., move up) one screenful, press Ctrl-B.
Scroll Backward One-Half Screen To scroll backward one half of a screen, press Ctrl-U.

Inserting Text

vi provides many commands for inserting text. This section introduces you to the most useful of these commands. Note that each of these commands places vi in entry mode. To use any of these commands, you must first be in command mode. Remember to press Esc to make sure you are in command mode.

Append

Type a (append) to insert text to the right of the cursor. Experiment by moving the cursor anywhere on a line and typing a, followed by the text you want to add. Press Esc when you're finished.
Type A to add text to the end of a line. To see how this works, position the cursor anywhere on a text line and type A. The cursor will move to the end of the line, where you can type your additions. Press Esc when you're done.

Insert

Insert text to the left of the cursor by typing i from command mode.
Type I to insert text at the beginning of a line. (The command will move the cursor from any position on that line.) Again, as with all the commands in this section, press Esc to return to command mode after entering the desired text.

Open Line

Use these commands to open new lines, either above or below the current cursor position.
Type o to open a line below the current cursor position. To experiment, type o followed by a bit of text. You can enter several lines of text if you like. Press Esc when you are finished.
Type O to open a line above the current cursor position.

Changing Text

Changing text involves substituting one section of text for another. vi has several ways to do this, depending on circumstances.

Changing a Word

To replace a word, position the cursor at the beginning of the word to be replaced. Type cw, followed by the new word. To finish, press Esc.
To change part of a word, place the cursor on the word, to the right of the portion to be saved. Type cw, enter the correction, and press Esc.

Changing a Line

To replace a line, position the cursor anywhere on the line and type cc. The line disappears, leaving a blank line for your new text (which can be of any length). Press Esc to finish.

Changing Part of a Line

To replace part of a line, place the cursor to the right of the portion to be saved. Type C, enter the correction, and press Esc. This changes the portion of the line from the current cursor position to the end of the line.

Substituting Character(s)

To substitute one or more characters for the character under the cursor, type s, followed by the new text. Press Esc to return to command mode.

Replacing One Character

Use this command to replace the character highlighted by the cursor with another character. Position the cursor over the character and type r, followed by just one replacement character. After the substitution, vi automatically returns to command mode (there's no need to press Esc).

Transposing Characters

Correcting transposed characters takes just two keystrokes in vi. Suppose you find that you've typed "teh" when you meant to enter "the". Make the correction by putting the cursor over the first letter to be moved (in this case, e), and then type xp. The e and h will trade places - and vi will automatically return to command mode.

Breaking or Joining Lines

To break a line without affecting text, move the cursor to a space where you want the line to break and type r (for "replace") followed by Return. Note that if you type r with the cursor on a character and then press Return, that character will be replaced by the Return.
To join two lines, place the cursor on the upper line and type an uppercase J. (There's no need to press Esc after typing J.)

Undoing Changes

When editing text and making changes to a vi file, there will no doubt be times when you'll wish that you had not changed something. vi's undo commands allow you to back up one operation and continue on from there.

Undoing the Previous Command

If you make a mistake in vi or if you just change your mind once an operation is completed, you can undo your last command by pressing u immediately after the command. (There's no need to press Esc after typing u.) Pressing u a second time undoes the undo.

Undoing Changes to a Line

Type U to undo all changes you've made to a line. This command works only if you haven't moved the cursor off the line. (There's no need to press Esc after typing U.)

Deleting Text

These vi commands delete the character, word, or line you indicate. vi stays in command mode, so any subsequent text insertions must be preceded by additional commands to enter entry mode.

Deleting One Character

To delete one character, position the cursor over the character to be deleted and type x.
The x command also deletes the space the character occupied--when a letter is removed from the middle of a word, the remaining letters will close up, leaving no gap. You can also delete blank spaces in a line with the x command.
To delete one character before (to the left of) the cursor, type X (uppercase).

Deleting a Word or Part of a Word

To delete a word, position the cursor at the beginning of the word and type dw. The word and the space it occupied are removed.
To delete part of a word, position the cursor on the word to the right of the part to be saved. Type dw to delete the rest of the word.

Deleting a Line

To delete a line, position the cursor anywhere on the line and type dd. The line and the space it occupied are removed.

Deleting Part of a Line

You can also delete part of a line.
To delete everything to the right of the cursor, position the cursor to the right of the part of the line you want to save, and type D.
To delete everything to the left of the cursor, position the cursor to the right of the part of the line you want to delete and type d0 (d-zero).

Deleting to the End of the File

To delete everything from the current line to the end of the file, type dG. This also deletes the line on which the cursor is located.

Deleting from Beginning of File

To delete everything from the beginning of the file to the current line, type d1G. This also deletes the line on which the cursor is located.

Copying and Moving Text -- Yank, Delete, and Put

Many word-processors allow you to "copy and paste" and "cut and paste" lines of text. The vi editor also includes these features. The vi command-mode equivalent of "copy and paste" is yank and put; the equivalent of "cut and paste" is delete and put.
The methods for copying or moving small blocks of text in vi involves using a combination of the yank, delete, and put commands.

Copying Lines

To copy a line requires two commands: yy or Y ("yank") and either p ("put below") or P ("put above"). Note that Y does the same thing as yy.
To yank one line, position the cursor anywhere on the line and type yy. Now move the cursor to the line above where you want the yanked line to be put (copied), and type p. A copy of the yanked line will appear in a new line below the cursor.
To place the yanked line in a new line above the cursor, type P.
The yy command works well with a count: to yank 11 lines, for example, just type 11yy. Eleven lines, counting down from the cursor, will be yanked, and vi indicates this with a message at the bottom of the screen: 11 lines yanked.
You can also use the P or p commands immediately after any of the deletion commands discussed earlier. This puts the text you deleted above or below the cursor, respectively.
CAUTION Caution - Use only cursor-moving commands between yanking or deleting and putting. If you delete or yank any other text before putting the new text in place, the lines you yanked or deleted will be lost.

Moving Lines

Moving lines also requires two commands: dd ("delete") and either p or P.
To move one line, position the cursor anywhere on the line and type dd. For example, to delete 5 lines, type 5dd.
Next, move the cursor to the line above where you want the deleted line reinserted and type p. This inserts the text on a new line below the cursor.
Alternatively, you can put the deleted line above the cursor by typing P.

Using Named Buffers

To repeatedly insert a group of lines in various places within a document, you can yank (or delete) the lines into a named buffer. You specify named buffers by preceding a command with double quotes (") and a name for the buffer. For example, to yank four lines into the named buffer a, type "a4yy. You can use several different buffers. For example, you might also delete text from one location and add it to several others. To delete 12 lines into the named buffer b, type "b12dd.
To insert the text, precede the p or P command with "n, where n is the named buffer. For example, to insert the lines saved in buffer b, type "bP.
You can overwrite named buffers with new lines. The buffers are saved until you exit vi.
When you use named buffers, you can safely delete and yank other text without affecting the lines you have already saved in the named buffers -- unless, of course, you purposely overwrite the named buffer.

Using a Count to Repeat Commands

Many vi commands can be preceded by a repeat factor (called a count) -- a number that precedes the command and tells it how many times to repeat the operation.
Most of the commands in the previous sections take counts. For instance, 3dd repeats the command to delete a line three times, therefore deleting three lines. 2dw deletes two words, and 4x deletes four characters or spaces. You can also use counts with commands to move the cursor, such as 3w and 2Ctrl-F. This will all become evident as you learn the vi commands. In the section, "Summary of Basic vi Commands" at the end of this chapter, each command that takes a count is indicated by "[count]" before the command name.
Typing a period (.) repeats the previous text-changing command. For example, if you have just deleted a line with dd, you can move the cursor to another line and delete it by simply typing a period.
Using ex Commands

Using ex Commands

ex commands are more accurate and convenient than yank, delete, and put when you're dealing with large blocks of text. Rather than counting lines on the screen and then searching for an insertion point, you give vi a range of lines to be moved or copied and then specify the line before the insertion point. (Of course, with a delete command there is no insertion point.)

Turning Line Numbers On and Off

To turn line numbers on, type :set nu and press Return.
Line numbers appear in the left margin. Note that these numbers do not appear when you print out the file. They are visible only on the screen.

  1 Oh, when I die, take my saddle from the wall,  
  2 Put it on my pony, lead him out of the stall.  
  3 Tie my bones to his back, point our faces to the west,  
  4 And we'll ride the prairies that we love the best.  
  5  
  6 Ride around, little doggies,  
  7 Ride around real slow.  
  8 Firey and Snuffy are rarin' to go.  
  ~  
  ~  
  ~  
  ~  
  ~  
  ~  
  :set nu
To turn line numbers off, type :set nonu and press Return.

Copying Lines

The basic form of the ex copy command is:

  :line#,line# co line#
The first two numbers (separated by a comma) specify the range of lines to be copied. The third number is the line before the insertion point.
For example, to copy lines 1 through 5 of paint and place the copy after line 12, you would type the following:

  :1,5 co 12
and press Return.
When specifying line ranges, use the abbreviations
  • Period (.) to denote "from the current line."
  • Dollar sign ($) to denote "to end of file."
Thus, to copy the range "from the current line through line 5" and insert this block after line 12, you would type:

  :.,5 co 12
To copy the range "from line 6 through the end of the file" and insert this block after line 2, you would type:

  :6,$ co 2

Moving Lines

The basic form of the ex move command is similar to the copy command discussed above:

  :line#,line# m line#
Line ranges and insertion points are specified in the same ways, including use of the abbreviations . and $. The difference in function is simply that "move" removes a block from one location and reinserts it elsewhere.
For example, to move lines 1 through 5 to the line following 12, you would type:

  :1,5 m 12
and press Return.

Deleting Lines

To delete a range of lines, use the command form:

  :line#,line# d
For example, to delete lines 1 through 5, you would type:

  :1,5 d
Searching and Replacing with vi

Searching and Replacing with vi

vi provides several ways to find your place in a file by locating a specified string of characters. It also has a powerful global replacement function.

Finding a Character String

A character string is simply one or more characters in a row. It may include letters, numbers, punctuation, special characters, blank spaces, tabs, or carriage returns. A string may be a grammatical word or it may be part of a word.
To find a character string, type / followed by the string you want to search for, and then press Return. vi positions the cursor at the next occurrence of the string. For example, to find the string "meta", type /meta followed by Return.
Type n to go to the next occurrence of the string; type N to go to the previous occurrence.
To search backward in a file, you can use ? instead of /. In this case, the directions of n and N are reversed.
Searches normally are case-sensitive: a search for "china" will not find "China." If you want vi to ignore case during a search, type :set ic. To change it back to the default, case-sensitive mode, type :set noic.
If vi finds the requested string, the cursor will stop at its first occurrence. If the string is not found, vi will display Pattern not found on the last line of the screen.
Certain special characters ( / & ! . ^ * $ \ ?) have special significance to the search process and must be "escaped" when used in a search. To escape a special character, precede it with a backslash (\). For example, to search for the string "anything?" type /anything\? and press Return.
These special characters can be used as commands to the search function, so if you want to search for a string including one or more of these characters, you must indicate this by preceding the character with a backslash. To escape a backslash itself, type \\.

Refining the Search

You can make searches more precise by tagging the string with indicators for the following characteristics:
  • Beginning of line
  • End of line
  • Beginning of word
  • End of word
  • Wild card characters
To match the beginning of a line, start the search string with a caret (^). For example, to find the next line beginning with "Search", type:

  /^Search
To match the end of a line, end the search string with a dollar sign ($). For example, to find the next line ending with "search.", type:

  /search\.$
(Note that the period is escaped with a backslash.)
To match the beginning of a word, type \< at the beginning of the string; to match the end of a word, type \> at the end of the string. Thus, to match a word, rather than a string, combine the end-of-word and beginning-of-word tags in the search pattern. For example, to find the next occurrence of the word--as opposed to the string--"search", type:

  /\<search\>
To match any character, type a period (.) in the string at the location to be matched. For example, to find the next occurrence of "disinformation" or "misinformation", type:

  /.isinformation
Since this is a search for a string and not a word, this search pattern may also find such constructions as "misinformationalist" and "disinformationism".
To search for alternative characters in a string, enclose the alternatives in brackets. The search pattern /[md]string will find strings beginning with either m or d. On the other hand, /[d-m]string will find strings beginning with any letter from d through m.
To match zero or more occurrences of the last character, type an asterisk (*) in the string. You can effectively combine brackets and the asterisk to look for well-defined alternatives. For example, to find all strings beginning with a through z and ending with "isinformation" and to find all occurrences of the string "isinformation", type:

  /[a-z]*isinformation

Replacing a Character String

The procedure for replacing a text string is based on the search procedures discussed above. All the special matching characters for searches can be used in search-and-replace.
The basic command form is:

  :g/search-string/s//replace-string/g
followed by the Return key.
Therefore, to replace every occurrence of the string "disinformation" with "newspeak", you would type:

  :g/disinformation/s//newspeak/g
and press Return.
You can modify this command to halt the search and make vi query whether you want to make the replacement in each instance. The following command uses gc (adding c for "consult") to make vi stop at every occurrence of "disinformation" and ask whether you want to make the substitution. Respond with y for yes or n for no.

  :g/disinformation/s//newspeak/gc
Note - You can cancel a "consulted" search-and-replace by pressing Ctrl-C.

Going to a Specific Line

To go to the last line of an open file, by type G. To return to the first line of the file, by type 1G.
You can go to any other line by typing its number followed by G.
For example, suppose that you quit the file paint while editing line 51. You can access that line by opening the file and typing 51G.
Inserting One File into Another

Inserting One File into Another

vi makes it convenient to "read" (insert) a file into the file you are editing. The general form of the command is:

  :line# r filename
If you do not specify a line number, vi inserts the file at the current cursor position.
For example, if you wanted to insert the file orwell at line 84 of the file paint, you would type:

  :84 r orwell
Or you could position the cursor on line 84 and type:

  :r orwell
Editing Multiple Files

Editing Multiple Files

vi allows you to edit multiple files. For example, to edit the file orwell while you are editing paint:
  1. First, save your current work in paint. Type :w and press Return.

  2. To edit orwell, type :n orwell and press Return.

  3. Make editing changes to orwell and save your work.

  4. When you are finished working with orwell and have saved your work, you have three choices:

  • Exit vi. Type :q and press Return.
  • Return to paint. Type :n # and press Return.
  • Swap back and forth between two files with the command :n #.

Editing a Series of Files

To edit a series of files, list the file names after the vi command when you start vi from the command prompt:

  $ vi paint orwell
The files appear in the order in which they are listed. First paint appears. When you finish editing paint, type :n to go on to the next file, orwell. To go on to the next file without saving changes in the current file, type :n! instead of :n.
If you have a series of files with related names (for example, test1, test2, test3), you can use wildcard characters to specify a group of files:

  $ vi test*
The files will appear for editing in alphabetical order by name.

Copying Lines Between Files

To copy lines from one file to another, do the following:
  1. Edit the first file.

  2. Save the desired lines in named buffers, using the yank command. For example, to save 10 lines in buffer a, type a10Y.

  3. Without exiting vi, edit the next file (orwell in this example):


  :n orwell
  1. Add the lines from the first file with the put command. For example, to put the contents of buffer a below the current cursor position, type ap.

Remember that the contents of all named buffers are lost whenever you exit vi. Don't use the quit (:q) command until you have finished any operations involving named buffers.
Setting vi Parameters

Setting vi Parameters

vi has many variables that affect its behavior and appearance. You can view a list of these variables (with their current settings) while running vi by typing:

  :set all
followed by Return.
Recovering from a Crash

Recovering from a Crash

If the system crashes, the contents of your buffer are at risk. Often, though, you can recover most of your work by restarting vi with the command form:

  vi -r filename
where filename is the file you were editing at the time of the crash. The system will usually send you mail after the system is restarted, telling you there is a recover file.
Summary of Basic vi Commands

Summary of Basic vi Commands

The following table provides a convenient reference for basic vi commands.
Table 6-1 Basic vi Commands
CommandMeaning
Starting vi
vi filenameOpen or create file
viOpen new file to be named later
vi -r filenameRecover crashed file
view filenameOpen file read-only
Cursor Commands
hMove left one character
jMove down one line
kMove up one line
lMove right one character
wMove right one word
WMove right one word (past punctuation)
bMove left one word
BMove left one word (past punctuation)
eMove to end of current word
Table 6-1 Basic vi Commands (Continued)
CommandMeaning
ReturnMove down one line
Back SpaceMove left one character
Space BarMove right one character
HMove to top of screen
MMove to middle of screen
LMove to bottom of screen
Ctrl-FPage forward one screen
Ctrl-DScroll forward one-half screen
Ctrl-BPage backward one screen
Ctrl-UScroll backward one-half screen
Inserting Characters and Lines
aInsert characters to right of cursor
AInsert characters at end of line
iInsert characters to left of cursor
IInsert characters at beginning of line
oInsert line below cursor
OInsert line above cursor
Changing Text
cwChange word (or part of word) to right of cursor
cChange line
CChange from cursor to end of line
sSubstitute string for character(s) from cursor forward
rReplace character at cursor with one other character
r ReturnBreak line
JJoin current line and line below
xpTranspose character at cursor and character to right
~Change case of letter (upper or lower)
Table 6-1 Basic vi Commands (Continued)
CommandMeaning
uUndo previous command
UUndo all changes to current line
:uUndo previous last-line command
Deleting Text
xDelete character at the cursor
XDelete character to the left of the cursor
dwDelete word (or part of word to right of cursor)
ddDelete line containing the cursor
DDelete part of line to right of cursor
dGDelete to end of file
d1GDelete from beginning of file to cursor
:5,10 dDelete lines 5-10
Copying and Moving Text
yyYank or copy line
YYank or copy line
pPut yanked or deleted line below current line
PPut yanked or deleted line above current line
:1,2 co 3Copy lines 1-2 and put after line 3
:4,5 m 6Move lines 4-5 and put after line 6
Setting Line Numbers
:set nuShow line numbers
:set nonuHide line numbers
Setting Case-sensitivit
:set icSearches should ignore case
:set noicSearches should be case-sensitive
Finding a Line
GGo to last line of file
Table 6-1 Basic vi Commands (Continued)
CommandMeaning
1GGo to first line of file
21GGo to line 21
Searching and Replacing
/stringSearch for string
?stringSearch backward for string
nFind next occurrence of string in search direction
NFind previous occurrence of string in search direction
:g/search/s//replace/gSearch and replace
Clearing the Screen
Ctrl-LClear (refresh) scrambled screen

Inserting a File into a File
:r filenameInsert (read) file after cursor
:34 r filenameInsert file after line 34
Saving and Quitting
:wSave changes (write buffer)
:w filenameWrite buffer to named file
:wqSave changes and quit vi
ZZSave changes and quit vi
:q!Quit without saving changes
7 Using Mail

Using Mail

7

SunOS provides a program called mailx for sending and receiving electronic mail (email). mailx provides facilities for reading, writing, sending, receiving, saving, and deleting messages. The mailx program is not window-based, and can therefore be run on any terminal. Although you may prefer to use the window-based mail, you may find that the mailx program is handy when you are dashing off a quick note. Also, if you want to set up your own mail aliases, you can read about it here.
Note - If you're in the OpenWindows environment and the Mail Tool icon appears on your screen, quit from the Mail Tool before trying the examples in this chapter. Otherwise, you will have two mail processes active, and this may generate error and warning messages. You can safely send mail messages in a Command Tool or Shell Tool window, but if you read your mail and save or delete messages, this will affect your "in tray," thus confusing Mail Tool.
mailx Basics

mailx Basics

In this section you will learn just enough about mailx to get by. In later sections you will learn about features and functions that will greatly enhance your ability to use this program.
An intended recipient's login name and machine name serve as a unique address for the mailx program. If the intended recipient is on the same machine as the sender, the login name is all that is required. Each user has a mailbox in which to receive mail. This mailbox is generally located in the /var/mail/username directory, where username is your login name.
The mailx program notifies you when you receive mail and places the mail in your mailbox. After you've read your mail, mailx automatically places these letters in a storage file called mbox, which is also located in your home directory.

Starting mailx

Start mailx by typing the following command at a prompt and then pressing the Return key:

  $ mailx
If you don't have any mail waiting for you, your terminal will display the message:

  No mail for username  
  $
where username is your login name.

Sending Yourself a Sample Letter

To see at a glance how mailx works, you can begin by sending yourself a sample letter. At the prompt, give the mailx command again, but this time include your address (your login name plus your machine name). For example, if your login was rose and your machine name was texas, your address would be rose@texas. (The @ symbol is read as "at.") You may be able to use just your login on a local network--consult your system administrator when in doubt.

  $ mailx rose@texas
The program will respond with a Subject: line:

  $ mailx rose@texas  
  Subject:
If you like, type in a word or two here about the content of the letter you're sending yourself and press Return. Now type the body of the letter; use short lines and press Return at the end of each line. (Note that you can only make corrections as you go by backspacing and retyping lines before you press Return.)
Your sample letter might look something like this (the spaces between lines are made by pressing Return twice):

  $ mailx rose@texas  
  Subject: to someone who really cares  
  Dear Rosey,  
  From the ends of your fingers  
  To the tip of your nose  
  You're a cool breeze in August  
  My sweet Texas Rose.  
  
  See you soon,  
  Rose
To send your sample letter, press Return to complete the last line of the letter and then press Ctrl-D. After your letter has been sent, the system returns a command prompt.

Reading Your Sample Letter

To read your sample letter, give the mailx command again. Your screen will probably look something like this:

  $ mailx  
  Mail version 4.0 Thu Jan 16 12:59:09 PST 1992  Type ? for help.  
  "/var/mail/rose": 2 messages 1 new  
   U  2 hal@uncertain   Fri Feb 14 12:01   14/318 financial status  
  >N  1 rose@texas      Mon Feb 17 08:12   21/453 to someone who  
  &
The first line identifies the version of mail that you are running; the second line indicates your mailbox, usually located in /var/mail/username, where your incoming mail is deposited. The third line in this example is the header of the letter you sent yourself. The "N" at the beginning of the line means that it's a "new" letter. A "U" (unread) means the letter was new, but was not read before quitting the mailx program previously. (The information in this screen is discussed in greater detail in "Reading Letters," in this chapter.)
Every letter is assigned a number as it is received: Rose's letter to herself is shown as letter number 1.
To read a letter, type its number at the mailx prompt, the ampersand (&), as follows:

  $ mailx  
  Mail version 4.0 Thu Jan 16 12:59:09 PST 1992  Type ? for help.  
  "/var/mail/rose": 1 message 1 new  
  >N  1 rose@texas   Fri Jul 14 12:01 21/453 to someone who  
  & 1  
  To: rose@texas  
  From: rose@texas  
  Subject: to someone who really cares  
  Dear Rose,  
  From the ends of your fingers  
  To the tip of your nose  
  You're a cool breeze in August  
  My sweet Texas Rose.  
  
  See you soon,  
  Rose  
  &

Quitting mailx

When you're finished using mailx, you can quit the program using one of two commands: q (quit) or x (exit).
If you type q at the mailx prompt and then press Return,

  & q
you will then see a message similar to the following:
Saved one message in home_directory/mbox.
where home_directory is the path name to your home directory.
When you use q to quit mailx after reading messages, mailx moves the letters from your mailbox and saves them in the mbox file in your home directory. mailx also saves any changes or deletions you've made.
If you type x at the mailx prompt and then press Return,

  & x
the mailx program does not save any changes or deletions, nor does it move any letters you've already read into the mbox file.
Reading Letters

Reading Letters

If you have mail, mailx notifies you each time you log in with the message
You have mail
or
  You have new mail
To read your letters, type mailx at a command prompt and press Return. If there's no mail waiting for you, you will see the message:
No mail for username
Otherwise, you will see a list similar to the following:

  $ mailx  
  Mail version 4.0 Thu Jan 16 12:59:09 PST 1992  Type ? for help.  
  "/var/mail/rose": 4 messages 1 new 2 unread  
      1 rose@texas        Fri Feb 14 12:01 21/453 to someone who  
   U  2 hank@fretful      Fri Feb 14 18:31 19/353 so lonely I  
   U  3 farmer@freeway    Sat Feb 15 10:22 24/557 looks like my  
  >N  4 hoover@woofer     Sun Feb 16 23:59 14/280 big old furry  
  
  &
The mailx program displays information about itself (version number and date) and instructions for getting help (Type ? for help).
On the next line, mailx specifies the location of your mailbox, the number of letters received, and their status.
Next, mailx shows a numbered list of the letters in your mailbox. From left to right, the columns in each line specify:
  • Status: indicates whether a letter is new (N), unread (U), or read (no symbol). A ">" at the beginning of a line indicates the current letter. Deleted letters are marked with an asterisk (*).
  • Number: indicates order in which letter was received.
  • Sender: indicates name of user (and usually machine) letter came from.
  • Time: indicates date and time letter was sent.
  • Size: indicates number of lines/number of characters in letter.
  • Subject: indicates sender-designated subject of letter.
When you have a large number of letters in your mailbox, the displayed list may not show all of your mail. If this is the case, type:
  • z - To display the next screenful of mail headers.
  • h- - To display the previous screenful of mail headers.
  • h - To redisplay the list of mail headers at any time.
To view the current letter in the mailbox list (marked with >), press Return. Pressing Return again will display the next letter. To read any letter in the list, type its number and press Return.
Deleting (and Undeleting) Letters

Deleting (and Undeleting) Letters

When you are finished reading a letter, you may decide you want to delete it rather than have it saved to your mbox file (the default when you quit the mailx program).
To delete the last letter you read, just type d at the mailx prompt. To delete a specific letter from your mailbox, use the command form:
d number
For example, to delete the second letter, give this command from within mailx:

  & d 2
You can also delete several letters at a time. To delete letters 1 and 3, give the command:

  & d 1 3
To delete a range of letters, for example 1 through 3, give the command:

  & d 1-3
Before quitting mail, you can undelete letters you've removed from your mailbox. Use the command form:
u number
followed by Return. For example, to undelete the second letter, give this command:

  & u 2
If you want to undo your last deletion, just type u at the mailx prompt immediately after the deletion. For example, if your last deletion command was d 2-5, typing u will undelete messages 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Note that all deletions are made permanent when you quit mailx with the q command; that is, deleted letters can no longer be undeleted. You can, however, quit mailx with the x command, leaving your mailbox intact -- as mentioned previously, quitting with x will leave read letters marked with a U, deleted letters undeleted, and so forth.
Printing Letters

Printing Letters

You can print a hard copy of a letter by piping a letter to a printer command. To do this, use the command form:
|number lp
at a mailx prompt. (The | symbol is called a pipe.) For example, to print a copy of letter 2, type:

  & |2 lp
and press Return. If a letter number is not specified, mailx pipes the current letter to the printer. For more information on piping, see "Redirecting and Piping Command Output" in Chapter 2, "Basic SunOS Commands."
Sending Letters

Sending Letters

To send mail with the mailx program, you need to know the login name(s) of the intended recipient(s) of your letter. If an intended recipient is on a different machine, you also need to know that user's machine name. To determine this information, you can use the who, finger, or rusers commands.
Typing the who command lists all the users who are currently logged in to the file server you are on. The displayed list contains user's login names, their terminal types, and the date and time they logged in. For example:

  $ who  
      elmer      tty15        Feb 20 10:22  
      susan      tty04        Feb 20 10:37  
      stormy     tty07        Feb 20 11:49  
      hankw      tty06        Feb 20 12:02
Typing the finger command displays the same type of information as who with a little more detail. The information that appears depends on how your system administrator has set up this command. As an example, you may see something like the following:

  $ finger  
      Login     Name           TTY      Idle     When  
      elmer     Elmer Brown    tty15     43      Thu 10:22  
      susan     Susan Lake     tty04             Thu 10:37  
      stormy    Stormy Ball    tty07     12      Thu 11:49  
      hankw     Hank Wilson    tty06     22      Thu 12:02
The rusers command provides information on the users currently logged in to your local network. Refer to Chapter 9, "Using the Network," for instructions regarding the use of the rusers command.
When you have determined the necessary user information, complete the following steps to send a letter.
  1. Type the mailx command followed by a user's address:


  $ mailx user@machine
where user is the intended recipient's login name and machine is the name of the intended recipient's machine.
  • If you've already started mailx, you can just type m at the mailx prompt, followed by the intended recipient's login and machine name:

  & m user@machine
  • To send the same letter to multiple recipients, separate each address with a space or a comma, for example:

  $ mailx hank@fretful sally@dakota tex@twister
or

  $ mailx hank@fretful,sally@dakota,tex@twister
  1. When you press Return, the mailx program prompts you for a subject. Type a subject for your letter and press Return again.

  2. Type the body of your letter. When you want to create a new line, press Return.

    A sentence that wraps on your screen is not considered a new line until you press Return.

Note - Each line of text within your letter can be up to 256 characters long. When you exceed this limitation, your screen will freeze. If this occurs, press Ctrl-C to abort your letter.
  1. When you have completed your letter, press Return to move the cursor to a new line. Then press Ctrl-D to send your letter.

Undeliverable Letters

If you specify an incorrect user address when you send a letter, the system responds with the message
user@machine...User unknown
and the letter is returned to your mailbox. The next time you type the mailx command, the header states that you have returned mail, similar to the following example:

  N 1 Mailer-Daemon Fri Jan 3 11:13 8/49 Returned mail: User unknown
When a letter cannot be delivered, the file is also copied to a file in your home directory named dead.letter.

Canceling an Unsent Letter

You can cancel a letter at any time before it is sent by pressing Ctrl-C twice.

Adding Carbon and Blind Carbon Copies

Before sending a letter, you can specify that "carbon copies" be sent to other than the main addressees. You can also send "blind carbons." (Recipients of your letter can read the addresses for the carbon copies, but not the addresses for the blind carbons.)
Many people send themselves carbons or blind carbons in order to retain a copy for their own record.
There are three methods for sending carbon copies with a letter:
  • Use a text editor to edit your .mailrc file (in your home directory) and insert the following line:

  set askcc
The mailx program will now display the carbon copy prompt (Cc:) after the subject prompt. Enter the addresses of the users you want to receive carbon copies. Separate multiple addresses with spaces.
  • When you've finished typing the body of your letter, but before you press Ctrl-D, press Return to move to a new line and use the command form:

    ~c address(es)

    To use this method to send carbon copies to multiple recipients, separate the addresses with spaces. For example:


  ~c hank@fretful george@lonesome stormy@snoozer
  • A Cc: line is also created by the ~h command, which displays the entire header of the letter. ~h prompts you with To:, Subject:, Cc:, and Bcc: (blind carbon copy) lines, one line at a time. Blank lines can be filled in; filled lines can be retyped. As with other tilde commands, always use the ~h command on a new line.
Note - ~c, ~h, and other tilde commands are described in "Tilde Commands," in this chapter.

Inserting a Copy of a Letter or File

You can insert a copy of any letter in your mailbox into the letter you're writing. Likewise, you can insert a copy of any text file.

Inserting a Letter

The command form to insert a letter is
~m number
where number is the number of the letter to be inserted. For example, to send a letter to another user that includes a copy of letter number 3 from your mailbox list, you would do the following:
  1. On a new line give the command ~m 3 and then press Return.

  2. mailx displays the message, Interpolating: 3 (continue)

  3. You won't see the text of message 3, but the recipient will. You can go on with your letter after (continue), or you can send it as is.

  4. To see the complete letter, interpolation included, type the command ~p.

Inserting a File

You can also insert a copy of any text file into a letter. Use the command form:
~r filename
as you're writing a letter. For example, to insert the file outline in the current letter, type:

  ~r outline

Replying to a Letter

Reply to mail by giving the command
r number
at a mailx prompt. (If you omit the letter number, mailx replies to the current letter.) For example, to reply to the sender of letter 2, give the command:

  & r 2
mailx automatically addresses your letter and supplies an Re: Subject: line that echoes the original Subject: line. Send your reply like any other letter.
R is a variant of the reply command that sends your reply to all recipients of the original letter as well as to its sender. Use this command only when absolutely necessary, to avoid generating "junk mail."
Note - You can insert a letter into your reply as shown in the previous section. To insert a copy of the letter to which you are replying, just give the command ~m without a letter number.
Saving and Retrieving Letters

Saving and Retrieving Letters

In addition to sending and receiving letters, you may also want to save and retrieve them for later use. In mailx you can save letters by appending them to regular text files; you can also append letters to special files called folders. Both methods are discussed below.
mailx makes a distinction between saving letters and copying them; saving removes a letter from the mailbox and appends it to a file or folder; copying leaves a letter in the mailbox and appends a copy to a file or folder.

Saving and Copying Letters in Files

To save a letter into a file, the command form at the mailx prompt is:
s number filename
where number is the number of the letter to be saved and filename is the file where you want to save the letter. For example, to save letter 3 into a file called ~/notes/finance, you would type:

  & s 3 ~/notes/finance
(Remember that in a path name, the ~ represents your home directory.)
You can also save several letters at once to the same file. For example, to save letters 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 to ~/notes/finance, you would type:

  & s 3 5-8 ~/notes/finance
If the file you specify does not exist, mailx creates it. If the file does exist, mailx appends the letter you are saving to the end of the file.
Saving a file removes it from your mailbox; mailx displays an asterisk (*) next to the header of any letter than has been saved.
To leave the letter in your mailbox while appending it to another file, use the copy command, as follows:

  & c 3 ~/notes/finance

Saving and Copying Letters in Folders

You can dispense with typing full pathnames to files if you save or copy letters to mail folders. Folders are special files that are stored in a folder directory.
The advantages to saving or copying letters to folders is that your letters are automatically kept together in the same directory, where they are easily accessible without typing long pathnames.

Setting the Folder Directory

To use folders, you must first set up a folder directory. This is a two-step process:
  1. First, make the directory using the mkdir command. For example, if you wanted your folder directory to be called Letters, you would first make the directory:


  $ mkdir Letters
  1. Second, use a text editor to edit the .mailrc file in your home directory (which contains mailx options) to set the folder directory path. Here you need to edit the set folder variable to include the full path name of your newly created folder directory. For example:


  set folder=/home/austin/rose/Letters
or, using the C shell shortcut ~ to specify your home directory.

  set folder=~/Letters
Now your folder directory is set to receive letters saved in folders. (The change to the .mailrc file will take effect the next time you start mailx.)

Designating Folders

You use the same commands to save or copy letters into folders as into files, except that the folder name is preceded by a plus sign (+) instead of a path name. The + tells mailx that the folder is to be kept in the folder directory (Letters).
For example, to save letter 3 to a folder called projects, type:

  & s 3 +projects
mailx interprets this command as meaning "save letter 3 into ~/Letters/projects." (If the folder doesn't already exist, mailx will create it.)
Copy the letter into a folder by typing:

  & c 3 +projects

Sending a Letter Directly to a File or Folder

You can send copies of your letters directly to one of your files or folders. To send a copy to a folder, simply type the folder name in either the Cc: or the Bcc: field. Sending a copy to a file is similar, but you must include the full path name.

Reading Letters in Files and Folders

To read letters saved in a file, use the command form:
mailx -f filename
Using the example above, you would read the file ~/memos/finance by typing:

  $ mailx -f ~/memos/finance
You can read letters saved in a folder with a similar command--just use the + instead of a pathname. For example, to read the letters in the folder projects, you would type:

  $ mailx -f +projects
This command starts mailx in the file or folder designated. Only headers for the letters in the file or folder are displayed. Select a letter to read by typing its number at the mailx prompt and pressing Return.
You can also work on mail folders within the mailx program. To see a list of your folders, type this at a mailx prompt:

  & folders
To switch from your mailbox to a folder, use the command form:

  & folder +foldername
To return to your mailbox, type this at a mail prompt:

  & %
To return to the previous folder, type:

  & #
Using vi with mailx

Using vi with mailx

You can use the vi text editor to compose letters while running mailx. This gives you the capability of correcting mistakes and adding and deleting text before you send your letters. If you are not already familiar with using vi, refer to Chapter 6, "Using the vi Editor," for instructions.
In the mailx program, you can use the standard vi commands for inserting, deleting, and changing text.
To write a letter with vi:
  1. Give the mailx command with an address at either the mailx prompt (&) or the command prompt ($).

  2. Type in the subject at the Subject: line. Press Return.

  3. Start vi by giving the command ~v on a new line. The vi screen will appear, representing an empty file in your /tmp directory.

  4. Use vi commands to input and edit the body of your letter.

  5. When done, quit vi with the command :wq or ZZ.

After you quit vi, mailx displays the message (continue): here you can either add to the letter (outside vi) or send the letter by pressing Ctrl-D.
Mail Aliases

Mail Aliases

A mail alias is a selection of user names grouped under a single name.
Use mail aliases when you want to send letters to the same group of people over and over. For example, if you wanted to send mail from time to time to hank@fretful, george@lonesome, and sally@dakota, you could create a mail alias called amigos. Then, each time you sent mail to amigos, all three people would receive it.
There are two locations where you can set up mail aliases:
  • Your .mailrc file
  • The /etc/aliases file
Mail aliases set up in .mailrc behave differently from mail aliases set up in /etc/aliases. These differences are summarized in Table 7-1 at the end of this section.

Setting Up Mail Aliases in .mailrc

Note the following about setting up mail aliases in .mailrc:
  • Mail aliases in .mailrc are private; that is, only you can use them. For example, if you set up a mail alias called amigos in .mailrc and another user tried to send mail to amigos, he would receive an unknown user error message.
  • When the mail is sent, .mailrc aliases are automatically expanded to show everyone on the mail alias. For example, if you sent mail to amigos, your mail arrives as though you had typed everyone's names as recipients. It is not apparent to the recipients that you used a mail alias to send the mail.
.mailrc is located in your home directory. This file contains a number of settings that control the behavior of mailx and Mail Tool.
To add a mail alias to .mailrc, type:

  $ vi ~/.mailrc
Note - You can use any text editor to edit the .mailrc file. The example above shows the method for using the vi editor to edit the file. If you are not already familiar with vi, refer to Chapter 6, "Using the vi Editor," for instructions.
Each mail alias is contained on one line of the file; that is, it can visually "wrap around" to another line, but it cannot contain carriage returns. Each mail alias should contain the following, separated by spaces:
  • The word "alias"
  • The name of the mail alias (must be one word)
  • The recipients (logins and machine names) in the mail alias, separated by spaces
The example below shows two mail aliases. The first (amigos) contains three people. The second (softball) contains eight. Notice in softball how the names are visually wrapped around on the screen. This is fine, as long as no carriage returns are used.

  alias amigos hank@fretful george@lonesome sally@dakota  
  alias softball earl@woofer tex@twister elmer@farmhouse  
  jane@freeway hank@fretful jj@walker sally@dakota steve@hardway
To send mail to people on a .mailrc alias, just address it to the mail alias name. Do not include your machine name. For example, if you sent the following:

  $ mail amigos  
  Subject: Let's eat  
  
  Hey Compadres. How about getting together for lunch on Friday?  
  Anyone interested?
the recipients would see the following (note the expanded To: line):

  To: hank@fretful george@lonesome sally@dakota  
  Subject: Let's eat  
  
  Hey Compadres. How about getting together for lunch on Friday?  
  Anyone interested?

Setting Up Mail Aliases in /etc/aliases

Note the following about setting up mail aliases in /etc/aliases:
  • Mail aliases in /etc/aliases are public. This means that if you set up a mail alias called softball, anyone can send to softball@your-machinename and make use of the mail alias.
  • When the mail is sent, /etc/aliases mail aliases are not expanded. For example, if you sent mail to softball@machinename, that's how the mail will read when it is received. The recipients will know what the mail alias is, but not necessarily who else is on it.
The format of mail aliases created in /etc/aliases is somewhat different from those in .mailrc. Each /etc/aliases alias should use the following format:
  • The name of the mail alias, followed by a colon (:)
  • The recipients (logins and machine names), separated by commas. Note that the mail alias does not have to be on a single line.
To modify your /etc/aliases file, you must first become root. If root is password protected, you'll need to know the root password.
Type the following to become the root user on the system:

  $ su  
  Password:  
  #
Notice that the command prompt changes when you become root.
The following example shows how the alias softball@texas is added to the default /etc/aliases file.

  # vi /etc/aliases  
  ##  
  #Aliases can have any mix of upper and lower case on the left-  
  #hand side,  
  #but the right-hand side should be proper case (usually lower)  
  #  
  #     >>>>>>>>>>The program "newaliases" will need to be run after  
  #     >> NOTE >>this file is updated for any changes to  
  #     >>>>>>>>>>show through to sendmail.  
  #  
  #@(#)aliases 1.10 89/01/20 SMI  
  ##  
  # Following alias is required by the mail protocol, RFC 822  
  # Set it to the address of a HUMAN who deals with this system's  
  mail problems.  
  Postmaster: root  
  
  # Alias for mailer daemon; returned messages from our MAILER-  
  DAEMON  
  # should be routed to our local Postmaster.  
  MAILER-DAEMON: postmaster  
  
  # Aliases to handle mail to programs or files, eg news or vacation  
  # decode: "|/usr/bin/uudecode"  
  nobody: /dev/null  
  
  # Sample aliases:  
  # Alias for distribution list, members specified here:  
  #staff:wnj,mosher,sam,ecc,mckusick,sklower,olson,rwh@ernie  
  
  # Alias for distribution list, members specified elsewhere:  
  #keyboards: :include:/usr/jfarrell/keyboards.list  
  
  # Alias for a person, so they can receive mail by several names:  
  #epa:eric  
  
  #######################  
  # Local aliases below #  
  #######################  


  softball@texas: earl@woofer tex@twister elmer@farmhouse  
  jane@freeway hank@fretful jj@walker sally@dakota steve@hardway  
  :wq         (to quit vi and save the /etc/aliases file)  
  # exit      (to exit root)  
  $
You can use any text editor to edit the /etc/aliases file. The example above shows the method for using the vi editor to edit the file. If you are not already familiar with vi, refer to Chapter 6, "Using the vi Editor," for instructions.
Note that the pound signs (#) you see within the /etc/aliases file have been placed there to comment out the text and sample aliases. The pound signs prevent the system from processing this information as actual aliases.
Do not place pound signs in front of aliases you add to this file, unless you intentionally want to disable an alias.
To send mail to people on a /etc/aliases alias, address the mail using the name of the alias and your machine name. For example, if you sent the following:

  $ mail softball@texas  
  Subject: Practice Today  
  
  Let's meet at the diamond behind Building 4 after work tonight.  
  Goodness knows we can use the practice for Saturday's game! Be  
  there as early as you can.
the recipients would see the following:

  To: softball@texas  
  Subject: Practice Today  
  
  Let's meet at the diamond behind Building 4 after work tonight.  
  Goodness knows we can use the practice for Saturday's game! Be  
  there as early as you can.
Notice that the To: line is not expanded.
Whenever you send mail using a mail alias of this type, be sure to include the machine name of the machine on which it's located. If you set up a mail alias called riders on the machine freeway, then you should send your mail to riders@freeway.
Table 7-1 provides a summary comparison between mail aliases created in .mailrc and those created in /etc/aliases.
Table 7-1 Comparing Mail Aliases in .mailrc and /etc/aliases

.mailrc/etc/aliases
Must be root to modify? noyes
Send message to:aliasalias@machinename
Recipients list seen by recipients?yesno
Names separated by commas?noyes
Names all on one line?yesno
Others can use the mail alias?noyes
For more detailed information on mail aliases, type man aliases or man addresses at the system prompt.
Tilde Commands

Tilde Commands

In the course of composing a letter, you can use tilde commands to perform a variety of functions. Tilde commands usually consist of the tilde character (~) followed by a single character. The following table describes some of the more useful tilde characters. Some of these have already been introduced in this chapter.
Note - If you want to include a literal tilde character in a letter, type two tildes in succession. Only one tilde will be displayed.
Table 7-2 Tilde Commands (mailx)
CommandFunction
~!commandEscapes to a shell command
~.Simulates pressing Ctrl-D to mark end of file
~?Lists a summary of tilde commands
~b usernameAdds user name(s) to the blind carbon copies (Bcc:) list
~c usernameAdds user name(s) to the carbon copies (Cc:) list
~dReads the contents of the dead.letter file into current letter.
~f numberForwards the specified letter. Valid only when sending a message while reading mail.
~hPrompts for header lines: Subject, To, Cc, and Bcc.
~m numberInserts text from the specified letter into the current letter. Valid only when sending a message while reading mail.
~pPrints the message being entered to the screen.
~qSimulates pressing Ctrl-C twice. If the body of the current message is not empty, the contents are saved to dead.letter.
~r filenameReads in the text from the specified file.
~s stringChanges the subject line to string.
~t nameAdds the specified name(s) to the To list.
~w filenameWrites the current letter without the header into the specified file.
~xExits mailx. Similar to ~q except message is not saved in the dead.letter file.
Getting Help: Other mailx Commands

Getting Help: Other mailx Commands

mailx has two help commands that display lists of commands and functions. When in command mode, you can type ? at the mailx prompt (&) to see a list of commands used in that mode. Likewise, when in input mode (for example, when writing a letter), you can give the equivalent command, ~? to view a list of tilde commands (also called "tilde escapes").
The man pages contain extensive information on mailx in more technical form. To see this entry, give the command:

  $ man mailx
or refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
8 Using Printers

Using Printers

8

The LP (for line printer subsystem) print service is the portion of SunOS which provides the tools used for printing. It provides a wide variety of functions, many of which are not within the scope of this manual. This chapter provides only the procedures necessary for you to perform the following basic printing tasks using the LP print service:
  • Submitting a print request (sending a file to the printer)
  • Determining a printer's status
  • Cancelling a print request
See User Accounts, Printers, and Mail Administration for a complete description of the LP print service.
Submitting Print Requests

Submitting Print Requests

To print a file from the command prompt, you use the lp command to send a request to the printer to print that file. When a request is made, the LP print service places it in the queue for the printer, displays the request ID number, and then redisplays the shell prompt.

Submitting Print Requests to the Default Printer

When the LP print service is set up with a default printer, you can submit print requests as follows without typing the name of the printer:

  $ lp filename
where filename is the name of the file you want to print.
The specified file is placed in the print queue of the default printer, and the request id is displayed.
For example, to print the /etc/passwd file, type:

  $ lp /etc/passwd  
  request id is pinecone-8 (1 file)  
  $
See User Accounts, Printers, and Mail Administration for information on how to specify a default printer.

Submitting Print Requests Using a Printer Name

Whether or not a default printer has been designated for your system, you can submit print requests to any printer that is configured for your system. To submit a print request to a specific printer, type the following:

  $ lp -d printername filename
where printername is the name of the specific printer and filename is the name of the file you want to print.
The specified file is placed in the print queue of the destination printer, and the request id is displayed.
For example, to print the /etc/passwd file on the printer acorn, type:

  $ lp -d acorn /etc/passwd  
  request id is acorn-9 (1 file)  
  $
If you submit a request to a printer that is not configured on your system, an information message is displayed, as shown in the following example:

  $ lp -d thorn /etc/passwd  
  UX:lp: ERROR: Destination "thorn" is unknown to the  
                LP print service.  
  $
See User Accounts, Printers, and Mail Administration for information on configuring printers. See "Determining Printer Status," in this chapter, for information about how to find out which printers are available on your system.

Requesting Notification when Printing is Complete

When you submit a large file for printing, you may want the LP print service to notify you when printing is complete. You can request that the LP print service notify you in two ways:
  • Send an email message
  • Write a message to your console window
To request email notification, use the -m option when you submit the print request:

  $ lp -m filename
To request a message be written to your console window, use the -w option when you submit the print request:

  $ lp -w filename
where filename is the name of the file you're printing.

Printing Multiple Copies

You can print more than one copy of a file. When you request more than one copy, the file is printed the number of times you specify using the -n option to the lp command. The print request is considered as one print job, and only one header page is printed.
Enter the following to request multiple copies:

  $ lp -nnumber filename
where number is the desired number of copies and filename is the name of the file you are printing.
For example to print four copies of the /etc/passwd file:

  $ lp -n4 /etc/passwd  
  request id is pinecone-9 (1 file)  
  $

Summary Table of lp Options

You can customize your print request using options to the lp command: specifying forms, character sets, filters, titles, banners, and so forth. Table 8-1 summarizes the frequently used options for the lp command. You can use these options individually or combine them in any order on the command line. When you combine options, use a space between each option and repeat the dash (-).
For example, to specify a destination printer, request email notification, and print six copies of a file, you would enter the following:

  $ lp -d printername -m -n6 filename
where printername is the name of the desired printer and filename is the name of the file you are printing.
Table 8-1 Summary of Frequently Used lp Options
OptionDescription
-dDestination. Specifies a destination printer by name.
-mMail. Sends email to the requestor when the file has printed successfully.
-nNumber. Specifies the number of copies to be printed.
-tTitle. Specifies a title (printed only on the banner page) for a print request.
-o nobannerOption. Suppresses printing of the banner page for an individual request.
-hHeader. Puts a header on each page of the print request.
-cCopy. Copies the file before printing.
-wWrite. Writes a message to your terminal when the file has printed successfully.
See the lp(1)man page for a complete list of options.
Determining Printer Status

Determining Printer Status

Use the lpstat command to find out about the status of the LP print service. You can check on the status of your own jobs in the print queue, determine which printers are available for you to use, or determine request ids of your jobs if you want to cancel them.

Checking on the Status of Your Print Requests

Enter the following to find out the status of your own spooled print requests:

  $ lpstat
A list of the files that you have submitted for printing is displayed.
In the following example, on the system pine, one file is queued for printing to the printer pinecone:

  $ lpstat  
  pinecone-10              fred            1261   Mar 12 17:34 on pine  
  $
The lpstat command displays one line for each print job, showing the request id, followed by the user who spooled the request, the output size in bytes, and the date and time of the request.

Checking on Available Printers

To find out which printers are configured on your system, type the following:

  $ lpstat -s
The status of the scheduler is displayed followed by the default destination and a list of the systems and printers that are available to you.
In the following example, on the system elm, the scheduler is running, the default printer is pinecone, and two network printers, pinecone and acorn, are available:

  $ lpstat -s  
  scheduler is running  
  system default destination: pinecone  
  system for pinecone: pine  
  system for acorn: oak  
  $

Displaying All Status Information

The -t option for lpstat gives you a short listing of the status of the LP print service.
To display a short listing of all status information, type the following:

  $ lpstat -t
All available status information is displayed.
In the following example, there are no jobs in the print queue. When files are spooled for printing, the status of those print requests is also displayed:

  $ lpstat -t  
  scheduler is running  
  system default destination: pinecone  
  system for acorn: oak  
  pinecone accepting requests since Wed Jan 2 18:20:10 PST 1991  
  acorn accepting requests since Mon Mar 4 15:53:47 PST 1991  
  printer pinecone is idle. enabled since Wed Jan 2 18:20:22 PST  
  1991. available.  
  
  printer acorn is idle. enabled since Mon Mar 4 15:53:44 PST 1991.  
  available.  
  $

Displaying Status for Printers

You can request printer status information for individual printers using the -p option to lpstat. This option shows whether the printer is active or idle, when it was enabled or disabled, and whether it is available to accept print requests.
To request status for all printers on a system, type the following:

  $ lpstat -p
In the following example, two printers are idle, enabled, and available. If one of those printers had jobs in the print queue, those jobs would also be displayed.

  $ lpstat -p  
  printer pinecone is idle. enabled since Wed Jan 2 18:20:22 PST  
  1991. available.  
  printer acorn is idle. enabled since Mon Mar 4 15:53:44 PST 1991.  
  available.  
  $
To request status for an individual printer by name, type the following:

  $ lpstat -p printername
where printername is the name of the specific printer.

Displaying Printer Characteristics

If you want to see all of the characteristics for a printer, use the -p option together with the -l (long) option to lpstat. This command can be especially useful for finding the printer type and content type.
To show characteristics for all printers on a system, enter the following:

  $ lpstat -p -l
A table shows all the configuration information that is used by the LP print service for each printer.
In the following example, all of the fields are blank except for the content type and the printer type of the printer pinecone.

  $ lpstat -p pinecone -l  
  printer pinecone is idle. enabled since Wed Jan 2 18:20:22 PST  
  1991. available.  
          Content types: PS  
          Printer types: PS  
          Description:  
          Users allowed:  
                  (all)  
          Forms allowed:  
                  (none)  
          Banner not required  
          Character sets:  
                  (none)  
          Default pitch:  
          Default page size:  
  $

Summary Table of lpstat Options

You can request different types of printing status information using the lpstat command. Table 8-2 summarizes the frequently-used options for the lpstat command. Use these options individually, or combine them in any order on the command line. When you combine options, use a space between each option and repeat the dash (-).
For example, to show a long list of status for an individual printer, you would enter the following:

  $ lpstat -p printername -l
where printername is the name of the printer for which you want to view status.
Table 8-2 Summary of Frequently Used lpstat Options
OptionDescription
-aAccept. Show whether print destinations are accepting requests.
-cClass. Show classes and their members.
-dDestination. Show default destination.
-fForms. Show forms.
-oOutput. Show status of output.
-p [list][-D][-l}Printer/Description/Long list. Show status of printers.
-rRequest. Request scheduler status.
-RShow position of job in the queue
-sStatus. Show status summary
-SSets. Show character sets
-u [username]User. Show requests by user
-vShow devices
See the lpstat(1)man page for a complete list of options.
Canceling a Print Request

Canceling a Print Request

Use the cancel command to cancel a print request while it is in the queue or while it is printing. To cancel a request, you need to know its request id. The request id always includes the name of the printer, a dash, and the number of the print request. When you submit the print request, the request id is displayed. If you do not remember your request id, type lpstat and press Return. Only the user who submitted the request, or someone logged in as root or lp can cancel a print request.

Canceling a Print Request by ID Number

To cancel a print request, type the following:

  $ cancel requestid
where requestid is the request id number of the desired print request.
A message is displayed telling you that the request is canceled. The next job in the queue begins printing.
In the following example two print requests are canceled:

  $ cancel pinecone-3 pinecone4  
  request "pinecone-3" cancelled  
  request "pinecone-4" cancelled  
  $

Canceling a Print Request by Printer Name

You can also cancel just the job that is currently printing (if you submitted it) by typing the printer name in place of the request id as follows:

  $ cancel printername
where printername is the name of the printer to which you sent the request.
A message is displayed telling you that the request is canceled. The next job in the queue begins printing
In the following example the currently printing request has been canceled:

  $ cancel pinecone  
  request "pinecone-3" cancelled  
  $
Your system administrator can log in as root or lp and cancel the currently printing request using the printer name as the argument for the cancel command.
9 Using the Network

Using the Network

9

A network is a group of computers set up to communicate with one another. When your machine is part of a network, you have the opportunity to use the resources of other machines on the network while remaining logged in to your own machine. You can log in to other machines or you can execute remote commands affecting other machines from your own workstation.
In this chapter, the following information is provided:
  • General concepts of networking
  • How to log in to remote machines
  • How to copy files from remote machines
  • How to execute commands on remote machines
  • How to request status information on remote machines
If the machine you're using is not currently attached to a network, the information presented here may not be relevant to your situation. However, it may be valuable for you to at least skim this information to get an overall view of the benefits that networking can provide.
Networking Concepts

Networking Concepts

A network connection between machines allows them to transmit information to one another. Networks are often referred to as being local area networks (LANs), which range over small areas, generally less than a few thousand feet; wide area networks (WANs), which can span thousands of miles; or campus area networks (CANs), which are intermediate in size.
A network comprised of a linked group of networks is called an internetwork. For example, your machine may be part of a network within your building and part of an internetwork that connects your local network to similar networks across the country. Since the difference between a network and an internetwork is generally invisible to the user, the term "network" is used in this manual to refer to both networks and internetworks.
Machines attached to a network communicate using a network protocol, or common network language, to ensure that information is transmitted to the appropriate locations. An internetwork protocol, sometimes referred to as a relay, links networks together.
Logging In Remotely ( rlogin )

Logging In Remotely (rlogin)

The rlogin command allows you to log in to other UNIX machines on your network.
To remotely log in to another machine, type:

  $ rlogin machinename
where machinename is the name of the remote machine.
If a password prompt appears, type the password for the remote machine and press Return. If your machine name is in the other machine's /etc/hosts.equiv file, the other machine "trusts" your machine name and won't require you to type the password.

  $ rlogin lonesome  
  Password: (type password)  
  Last login: Mon Jan 6 09:37:55 from blue  
  Sun Microsystems, Inc.   SunOS 5.1      October 1992  
  (The following commands done on lonesome.)  
  $ pwd  
  /home/keithp  
  $ logout  
  Connection closed.  
  $

rlogin without a Home Directory

In the example above, user keithp logged in to lonesome at the directory /home/keithp, as indicated by the pwd command. When you log in to a machine where you don't have a home directory, rlogin displays a message stating that you have no home directory on the remote machine and logs you in to the root (/) directory of that machine:

  $ rlogin fretful  
  Password:  
  No directory! Logging in with home=/  
  Last login: Fri Jan 3 10:21:59 from blue  
  Sun Microsystems, Inc.    SunOS 5.1      October 1992  
  (The following commands done on fretful.)  
  $ pwd  
  /  
  $ logout  
  Connection closed.  
  $

rlogin as Someone Else

There may be times when you want to log in to a remote machine as someone else. For example, if you're working on someone else's machine (using their username) and you want to log in to your own machine as yourself. The -l option to rlogin allows you to do this. The command syntax is:
rlogin machinename -l username
For example, the following shows how user keithp on machine blue would log in to machine lonesome as earl:

  $ rlogin lonesome -l earl  
  Password:  
  Last login: Wed Jan 8 07:12:25 from blue  
  Sun Microsystems, Inc.    SunOS 5.1      October 1992  
  (The following commands done on lonesome.)  
  $ pwd  
  /home/earl  
  $ logout  
  Connection closed.  
  $
Note that when you log in to a remote machine as someone else, you are placed in that user's home directory.

rlogin to an Unknown Machine

If you try to log in to a remote machine whose name isn't known to your machine, rlogin searches unsuccessfully through the hosts database and then displays a notification as follows:

  $ rlogin stranger  
  stranger: unknown host  
  $

Aborting an rlogin Connection

Normally you terminate an rlogin connection by typing logout at the end of a work session. If for some reason you can't terminate a session in this manner, you can abort the connection by typing a tilde character followed by a period (~.) at the beginning of a line. The login connection to the remote machine is aborted and you are placed back at your original machine.
If you log in to a series of machines, gaining access to each machine through another machine, and you use ~. to abort the connection to any of the machines in the series, you are returned to your original machine:

  $ rlogin dakota  
  Password:  
  Last login: Fri Jan 10 09:14:43 from blue  
  Sun Microsystems, Inc.    SunOS 5.1      October 1992  
  (The following command done on dakota.)  
  $ ~.  (You may not see the ~ on the screen.)  
  Connection closed.  
  $
If you want to back up to an intermediate rlogin connection, use two tildes followed by a period (~~.) as follows:

  $ rlogin lonesome  
  Password:  
  Last login: Tue Jan 7 08:12:49 from blue  
  Sun Microsystems, Inc.    SunOS 5.1      October 1992  
  (The following command done on lonesome.)  
  $ rlogin dakota  
  Password:  
  Last login: Tue Jan 7 10:17:40 from lonesome  
  Sun Microsystems, Inc.    SunOS 5.1      October 1992  
  (The following command done on dakota.)  
  $ ~~.  (You may not see the ~~ on the screen.)  
  Connection closed.  
  $

Suspending an rlogin Connection

When you want to suspend an rlogin connection so you can return to it later, type the tilde character (~) followed by Ctrl-Z. The rlogin connection becomes a stopped process and you are placed back at the machine from which you logged in.
To reactivate the connection, type fg. Alternatively, you can type the percentage sign (%) followed by the process number of the stopped process (the default for %, if no process number is included, is the process most recently suspended).

  $ rlogin lonesome  
  Password:  
  Last login: Tue Jan 7 08:12:49 from blue  
  Sun Microsystems, Inc.    SunOS 5.1      October 1992  
  (The following command done on lonesome.)  
   ~^Z  (You may not see the ^Z on the screen.)  
  Stopped  
  (The following command done on blue.)  
  $ pwd  
  /home/keithp  
  $ %  
  rlogin lonesome  
  
  (The following command done on lonesome.)  
  $ logout  
  Connection closed.  
  $
Similar to aborting rlogin with ~~., typing two tildes and Ctrl-Z suspends the current rlogin and places you at an intermediate rlogin.

Verifying Your Location (who am i)

After logging in to a variety of remote machines, perhaps under different login names, you might need to verify exactly where you are. Typing who am i displays the name of the machine you're currently logged into as well as your current identity.
Type man rlogin at the command prompt or refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
Copying Files Remotely ( rcp )

Copying Files Remotely (rcp)

The rcp command allows you to copy files from one machine to another. It uses the remote machine's /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/passwd files to determine whether you have unchallenged access privileges. The syntax for rcp is similar to that used for cp.
Note - To copy subdirectories and their contents from one machine to another, use rcp -r.

Copying from Another Machine to Yours

To copy from a remote machine to your machine, the syntax is:
rcp machinename:source destination
where machinename is the name of the remote machine, source is the name of the file(s) you want to copy, and destination is the path name on your machine where you want the copied file(s) to reside.
The following example illustrates how to copy the file /home/dakota/doc/letter from the remote machine dakota to the /tmp directory on local machine blue:

  $ rcp dakota:/home/dakota/doc/letter /tmp  
  $
You can also combine various abbreviations and syntaxes when using rcp. For example, to copy all of the files ending in .doc from user hank's home directory on remote machine fretful to the current directory on local machine blue, you would type the following:

  $ rcp fretful:~hank/*.doc .  
  $

Copying from Your Machine to Another

To copy from your local machine to a remote machine, the syntax is reversed as follows:
rcp source machinename:destination
where source is the file(s) you want to copy, machinename is the name of the remote machine, and destination is the path name on the remote machine where you want the copied file(s) to reside.
The following example illustrates how you would copy the file austin from your directory ~/usa/texas to the directory ~hank/cities on the remote machine fretful (remember that ~ is your home directory and ~hank is user hank's home directory):

  $ rcp ~/usa/texas/austin fretful:~hank/cities  
  $
For more information on the rcp(1) command and its options, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
Executing Commands Remotely ( rsh )

Executing Commands Remotely (rsh)

The rsh command (for remote shell) lets you execute a single command on a remote machine without having to log in formally. It can be a real time-saver when you know you only want to do one thing on the remote machine.
To execute a command on a remote machine, type:
rsh machinename command
The following example shows how you would view the contents of the directory /home/lonesome/guitar on the machine lonesome:

  $ rsh lonesome ls /home/lonesome/guitar  
  collings         gibson          santacruz  
  fender           martin          taylor  
  $
Similar to the rlogin and rcp commands, rsh uses the remote machine's /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/passwd files to determine whether you have unchallenged access privileges.
For more information on the rsh(1) command and its options, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
Viewing User Information ( rusers )

Viewing User Information (rusers)

The rusers command (for remote users) shows you who's logged on to other machines on your network. Typing the rusers command by itself displays each machine on the network and the user(s) logged in to them, as follows:

  $ rusers  
  aspen          susan  
  blue           keithp  
  dakota         sally  
  farmhouse      elmer  
  freeway        lindab     johnj     karenm  
  fretful        hank  
  lonesome       george  
  twister        tex  
  $
Notice that machine freeway has three different users currently logged in.
To display information on a specific remote machine, type the rusers command followed by the name of the machine, as follows:

  $ rusers freeway  
  freeway        lindab     johnj     karenm  
  $
The -l option to the rusers command provides more detailed information, including user names, machine and terminal names, the time each user logged in, how long each user's been idle (if more than one minute), and the name of the machine that each user logged in from (if any):

  $ rusers -l freeway  
  lindab        freeway:ttyd8     Feb 10 08:12     5:29  
  johnj         freeway:console   Feb 10 09:16  
  karenm        freeway:ttyp0     Feb 10 11:56       36  
  $
You can also use the -l option without providing a machine name.
For more information on the rusers(1) command and its options, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
10 Customizing Your Working Environment

Customizing Your Working Environment

10

The SunOS operating system makes it possible for you to control and adjust many aspects of your working environment. You do this by modifying the environment variables contained in your system's initialization files. When you login your system reads the initialization files and uses the environment variables to configure your system. By setting the environment variables you can "customize" your system to make it easier and more efficient to do your work.
This chapter describes how to customize your system by modifying your initialization files and setting the most common environment variables. It also describes how to alias SunOS commands, how to change your system prompt, how to set default file permissions, and how to customize OpenWindows fonts.
Initialization Files

Initialization Files

The particular initialization files responsible for your system's configuration depend on which shell the system administrator has specified as your default shell when your system was first installed. The Bourne shell is the default shell for SunOS, but you can also use the C shell or Korn shell. Each of these shells has its own initialization file (or files).
If you're not sure which shell is your default shell (referred to as your login shell):
  1. Type echo $SHELL:


  $ echo $SHELL  
  /bin/sh
  1. Look at the output of the command. If it is:

  • /bin/sh - your login shell is the Bourne shell
  • /bin/csh - your login shell is the C shell
  • /bin/ksh - your login shell is the Korn shell
Regardless of the shell you are using, when you first login your system generally runs the system profile file, /etc/profile. This file is generally owned by the system administrator and is readable (but not writable) by all users.
After your system executes the system profile, it runs the user profile. The user profile is one (or more) initialization files that define your working environment. For example, if you're in the OpenWindows environment your system checks this file (or set of files) each time you start a new Shell Tool or Command Tool window.
Depending on which shell is set up as your default, your user profile can be one of the following:
  • .profile (for the Bourne and Korn shells)
  • .login and .cshrc (for the C shell)
Your user profile file(s) is located in your home directory and allows you to configure your working environment to your preference.
Environment Variables

Environment Variables

Your system sets up your system environment using a set of specifications defined in the initialization files. If you want to temporarily modify your environment for the current work session you can issue commands directly at
the command prompt. However, if you want to modify your working environment on a more permanent basis, you can store "permanent" environment variables in the .profile, .login, or .cshrc files.
To display the environment variables currently set on your system:
  1. Type the env command and press Return:


  $ env  
  HISTORY=100  
  HOME=/home/texas/keith  
  HZ=100  
  LOGNAME=keith  
  MAIL=/var/mail/keith  
  MANSECTS=\1:1m:1c:1f:1s:1b:2:\3:3c:3i:3n:3m:3k:3g:3e:3x11:3xt:3  
  w:3b:9:4:5:7:8  
  PATH=/usr/bin  
  SHELL=/bin/sh  
  TERM=sun  
  TZ=EST5EDT
Note - You can also use the env command to identify your login shell. It is specified in the SHELL environment variable. In the example above, the shell is set to /bin/sh (the Bourne shell).

The User Profile

This section describes some of the more commonly used environment variables. Many of these variables may already be in your user profile. As previously mentioned, your user profile file (.profile for the Bourne and Korn shells and .cshrc for the C shell) is located in your home directory.
Note - Hidden ("dot") files can be listed by typing ls -la.
The following is a partial list of environment variables that can be included in your user profile. The syntax for defining environment variables depends on the shell you're using:
  • CDPATH - Specifies the directories to be searched when a unique directory name is typed without a full path name.
  • TERM - Defines the terminal you're currently using. When you run an editor, the system searches for a file with the same name as the definition of this variable. It first searches the path (if any) referenced by the TERMINFO variable, and then the default directory, /usr/share/lib/terminfo, to determine the characteristics of the terminal. If a definition is not found in either location, the terminal is identified as "dumb."
  • TZ - Defines the timezone for your system clock.

Setting the PATH Variable

The PATH environment variable is used to locate commands within the SunOS directory hierarchy. By setting the PATH you create a fixed set of directories that the system always searches whenever you enter the name of a command.
For example, if you have no PATH variable set and you want to copy a file, you need to enter the full pathname for the command, /usr/bin/cp. However, if you have set the PATH variable to include the directory /usr/bin, then you can simply type cp and your system will always execute the command. This is because your system searches for the cp command in every directory named in the PATH variable, and executes it when it is found. Using the PATH variable to list the commonly used SunOS command directories can thus significantly streamline your work.
For the Bourne and Korn shells, the PATH variable is specified in your .profile file (in your home directory) using the following syntax:

  PATH=.:/usr/bin:/home/bin
where home represents the path name of your home directory.
For the C shell, the PATH variable is specified in your .cshrc file (in your home directory) using the following syntax:

  set path=(. /usr/bin home/bin)
where home is the path name of your home directory.
Note - In the C shell you can use the shortcut ~ to represent the path name of your home directory.
If you modify the PATH variable, and you are running the C shell, use the source command to make the changes effective in your current window without having to logout:

  example% source .cshrc
If you are running the Bourne or Korn shell, type the following to make the changes effective in your current window without having to logout:

  $ . .profile

Aliases (C Shell Only)

Aliases are useful shortcuts for commands you often type. For example, the default setting for the remove command (rm) does not ask for confirmation before removing files. Sometimes this is inconvenient, as a typing error can remove the wrong file. However, the C shell lets you use the alias variable to change this by adding the following line to your .cshrc file:

  alias rm  'rm -i'
With this line in the .cshrc, typing rm will now be the same as typing rm -i, which is the interactive form of the rm command. You will then always be asked to confirm the command before any files are deleted. (The quote marks around rm -i in the example above are necessary to include the blank space between rm and -i. Without them the C shell cannot correctly interpret the text after the space.
To make your changes to the .cshrc file effective immediately in your current window, use the source command. The source command causes the system to read the current .cshrc file and execute the commands in it:

  example% source .cshrc

Changing Your Command Prompt

The syntax you use to change your command prompt depends on whether you are using the Bourne, Korn or C shell.
Bourne and Korn Shells For the Bourne or Korn shells, you redefine your command prompt with the PS1 command. The following are three examples:

  PS1=": "  
  PS1="'hostname': "  
  PS1="'hostname'{'id'}}: "
  • The first example sets the prompt to a colon (:), followed by a space.
  • The second example creates a prompt consisting of your machine name followed by a colon and a space.
  • The third example sets the prompt to your machine name, followed by your login name in braces {}, a colon, and a space.
Type any of the examples above to change your current command prompt. The prompt will remain until you change it again, or logout.
If you want to make your changes more permanent, add one of the above examples (or a prompt of your own creation) to your .profile file. If you do this, the prompt you specify will appear each time you login in or start a new shell.
C Shell For the C shell, you personalize your command prompt with the set prompt command. The following are three examples:

  set prompt="% "  
  set prompt="'hostname'\!: "  
  set prompt="'hostname'{'id'}}: "
  • The first example sets the prompt to the percent sign, followed by a space.
  • The second example creates a prompt consisting of your machine name followed by the history number of the command (hostname1, hostname2, hostname3, and so on).
  • The third example sets the prompt to your machine name, followed by your login name in braces, a colon, and a space.
Type any of the examples above to change your current command prompt. The prompt will remain until you change it again, or logout.
If you want to make your changes more permanent, add one of the above examples (or a prompt of your own creation) to your .cshrc file. If you do this, the prompt you specify will appear each time you login in or start a new shell.

Other Useful Variables

There are many other variables which you can set in your .profile or.cshrc files. For a complete list, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands. The following are a few brief descriptions of some of the more commonly used options.
Use set noclobber to prevent unintentional overwriting of files when you use the cp command to copy a file. This variable affects the C shell only. Enter the following in your .cshrc file:

  set noclobber
Use set history to set the number of commands saved in your history list. The history command is useful to view commands you have previously entered. The history file can also be used to repeat earlier commands. This variable affects the C shell only. Enter the following in your .cshrc file:

  set history=100
You can also affect the Bourne and Korn shells in the same manner by placing the following in your .profile file:

  HISTORY=100
Setting Default File Permissions

Setting Default File Permissions

The umask command sets a default file permission for all the files and directories you create. For example, if you are security conscious and you want to grant members of your group, and all users, only read and execute permissions (-rwxr-xr-x) on your directories and files, you can set the umask in your.cshrc and .profile file so that every new file or directory you create is protected with these permissions.
Like the chmod command, umask uses a numeric code to represent absolute file permissions. However, the method used to calculate the code for umask is distinctly different from the method for chmod.
To begin with, if umask is set to 000, all files you create have the following (read and write, but not execute) permissions:
rw-rw-rw- (mode 666)
and all directories created have the following (read, write, and execute) permissions:
rwxrwxrwx (mode 777)
To determine the value to use for umask, you subtract the value of the permissions you want (using the value you would specify for the chmod command) from the current default permissions assigned to files. The remainder is the value to use for the umask command.
For example, suppose you want to change the default mode for files from 666 (rw-rw-rw-) to 644 (rw-r--r--). Subtract 644 from 666. The remainder, 022, is the numeric value you would use with umask as follows:

  umask 022
Similar to the numeric code for the chmod command, the three numbers used with umask are as follows:
  • The first digit controls user permissions
  • The second controls group permissions
  • The third digit controls permissions for all others
Table 10-1 shows the file permissions created for each digit of the umask command's numeric code.
Table 10-1 Permissins for umask
umask codePermissions
0rwx
1rw-
2r-x
3r--
4-wx
5-w-
6--x
7---(none)
For more information on the umask command, refer to the man Pages(1): User Commands.
Customizing OpenWindows Fonts

Customizing OpenWindows Fonts

If you choose, you can customize the size and style of the fonts displayed in your OpenWindows applications. The following sections describe how to customize these fonts.

Specifying the Font Style and Point Size

The default font for windows is Lucida Sans in 12 point (medium); the default font for window headers is Lucida Sans Bold. If you prefer, you can specify another font style and size for windows and window headers. You can make the change for a single window or you can make a permanent change for all your applications with Workspace Properties. The following subsections describe each of these options.
Fixed-Width and Proportionally-Spaced Fonts Note that there are two general categories of fonts--fixed-width and proportionally-spaced. Each character in a fixed-width font takes up the same amount of space as every other character. By contrast, the characters in a proportionally-spaced font require varying amounts of space, depending upon their individual width. Proportionally-spaced fonts are more pleasing to the eye. However, some applications (such as Command Tool, Shell Tool, and xterm, a popular terminal emulator application) work best with fixed-width fonts.
Choosing Between Fixed and Proportional Fonts Note that the default font displayed in Command Tool and Shell Tool is a proportionally-spaced font. Although this font is pleasing to the eye, problems occur in character alignment (when spacing and tabbing) with any proportionally-spaced font in terminal windows. If the spacing and tabbing character alignment are a problem for you, it is best to choose a fixed-width font for these windows. In the examples that follow, only fixed-width fonts are used for terminal windows; the examples for other windows and headers use proportionally-spaced fonts.

Specifying the Font for a Single Window

This section describes how to open a single application with a modified font style and point size. Note that changes cannot be made to existing windows; you must start a new application to display the new font. To start a new application, you type its application name on a command line.
The basic command, shown below, specifies the application name, the -fn (font name) option, and the font style and size. The ampersand (&) returns your system prompt to the window after you type the command; this enables you to continue using that window.

  $ application -fn fontstyle-pointsize &
The following are examples of how to use the command to open an application with a specified font style and size.
  • The example below starts a new Command Tool with the proportionally-spaced font, Lucida Sans Typewriter Bold.

    The point size is not specified; therefore the default (12-point) is used.


  $ cmdtool -fn lucidasans-typewriter-bold &
  • The example below starts a new Shell Tool with Lucida Sans Typewriter Bold and increases the size of the font from 12 point to 14 point.

    Note that when you change the size of the font, the size of the window changes as well.


  $ shelltool -fn lucidasans-typewriter-bold-14 &
  • The example below starts a new xterm terminal window with the font terminal-bold in 16 point:

  $ xterm -fn terminal-bold-16 &
  • The example below starts a new Text Editor with the font Helvetica Bold in 14 point:

  $ textedit -fn helvetica-bold-14 &
Use the -fn option with any application and any font style and size you choose. "The Available Font List" on page 158" describes how to list all the fonts available for OpenWindows applications.

Making Font Assignments Permanent

If you find that you are repeatedly running applications with customized fonts, you might like to add the customization to your workspace menu. You can do this using the Programs Menu category of Workspace Properties. This will save you the effort of typing the command-line options every time. For example, if you often want to run the text editor with a larger point size, you could add the following command line to the programs menu:

  textedit -fn lucidasans-typewriter-14
You can have more than one instance of the same application in your programs menu if you want them to have different font sizes. This is useful if you run an application at a variety of different point sizes. For instance, you may want to have the option of running a text editor using 12, 14, or 18 point fonts. You would add the following commands to your programs menu:

  textedit -fn lucidasans-typewriter-12  
  textedit -fn lucidasans-typewriter-14  
  textedit -fn lucidasans-typewriter-18
Once you have customized your programs menu from Workspace Properties in this way, you can invoke the text editor at any of these point sizes simply by selecting the appropriate item from your programs menu.
Note - Command lines added to the programs menu should not be followed by an ampersand (&).

Listing the Available Fonts

You may want to experiment with more fonts than have been shown in the previous examples, and you may want to apply them to other OpenWindows applications. To do this you first list the available fonts and then select them.

The Available Font List

You can see the entire list of available fonts by entering xlsfonts at the prompt in a terminal emulator window. It is best to use Command Tool to display the list because it is likely that the list will scroll off the top of the screen, and Command Tool has a scrollbar that will let you view the entire list.
Note - The list generated from xlsfonts is very long; there are over 400 fonts available. If the listing on your screen does not contain the expected number of fonts, check with your system administrator. It is possible that a subset of the available fonts was installed.
Each font has a long name in addition to a shortened version. The full name for lucidasans-typewriter, for instance, is:

  -b&h-lucida sans typewriter-medium-r-normal-sans-12-120-72-72-m-  
  0-iso8859-1
The fonts you see in the xlsfonts listing are the long names followed by their short names. For the purposes described in this chapter, just use the short names.
Once you have chosen a font, follow the instructions in "Specifying the Font Style and Point Size" on page 155 to customize the fonts in your application windows.
A Migrating to OpenWindows Version 3.3, or Later Versions

Migrating to OpenWindows Version 3.3, or Later Versions

A

In some cases you may be running a version of the user environment software that is no longer current with Solaris, which runs OpenWindows as its default user environment. For example, you may be running the SunView user environment software, or a version of OpenWindows earlier than Version 3.3. If so, you may want to upgrade to OpenWindows 3.3, or later versions. This appendix describes how to do this.
Note - The SunView software is no longer supported in OpenWindows Version 3.3, or later versions. Unlike previous versions of OpenWindows, once you migrate to Version 3.3 or later you no longer have the option of also running SunView.
SPARC Migrating from the SunView Environment

SPARC Migrating from the SunView Environment

If you are migrating to the OpenWindows environment from the SunView environment, the following information may make your transition easier.
SPARC The .defaults and .Xdefaults Files
To customize your OpenWindows environment in the same way as your SunView environment, you can convert your .defaults file (used by the SunView software) into an .Xdefaults file (used by the OpenWindows
software). If you have a .defaults file in your home directory, you should run the convert_to_Xdefaults program that's in your home directory, as follows:

  $ cd  
  $ $OPENWINHOME/bin/convert_to_Xdefaults .defaults
This creates an .Xdefaults file in your home directory that is used to customize your OpenWindows environment when you start the software.
Migrating from a pre-Version 3.3 OpenWindows Environment

Migrating from a pre-Version 3.3 OpenWindows Environment

Read this section carefully if you formerly ran a version of the OpenWindows environment that predates Version 3.3 and now want to migrate to Version 3.3, or later versions. In particular, much of this information applies to those who have been using the OpenWindows Version 2 Environment.

The OPENWINHOME Environment Variable

If you are currently running a version of the OpenWindows software earlier than Version 3.3, you may have set up your system to use the OPENWINHOME environment variable. It is no longer recommended that users set the OPENWINHOME environment variable, either by-hand or from a start-up file.
When you run the openwin command it automatically sets the OPENWINHOME environment variable to /usr/openwin; therefore, you do not need to do it.
If you have set the OPENWINHOME environment variable in either the .profile or .cshrc file in your home directory, comment out the line or delete it altogether before running OpenWindows Version 3.3, or later versions.
To remove, or comment out, the OPENWINHOME environment variable in the .profile or .cshrc file:
  1. Open the .profile or .cshrc file using a text editor such as vi.

  2. Type a pound sign (#) before the variable, as shown below, or delete the line entirely.

    If you are working in the .profile file, use example a; if you are working in the .cshrc file, use example b

a. In the .profile file:

  #OPENWINHOME=/usr/openwin
a. In the .cshrc file:

  #setenv OPENWINHOME /usr/openwin
  1. Save and quit the file.

The .xinitrc File

The following are important notes about the .xinitrc and $OPENWINHOME/lib/Xinitrc files:
  1. In the OpenWindows Version 2 environment, the openwin script automatically created a copy of $OPENWINHOME/lib/Xinitrc to a file called .xinitrc in your home directory. This is no longer the case in the OpenWindows Version 3.3 environment. This is significant because:

    a. The openwin start-up script uses the default start-up file, $OPENWINHOME/lib/Xinitrc, unless there is an .xinitrc file in your home directory, which overrides the default.

    b. It is important that you use the default $OPENWINHOME/lib/Xinitrc file that come with OpenWindows Version 3.3 software, or later versions. (However, if you want to retain any special changes you made to the .xinitrc file in the Version 2 software, you can do so by following the instructions in this section.)

  2. If you run your system with multiple screens, you no longer need multiple instances of olwm.

Using the Correct Start-up File

If you are currently running a version of the OpenWindows software earlier than Version 3.3, it is important to determine the status of your .xinitrc file. The .xinitrc file is an OpenWindows start-up file your home directory that may contain user-defined options.
To determine the status of your .xinitrc file, type the following commands:

  $ cd  
  $ ls -a .xinitrc
Depending on the output of this command, do one of the following things:

Start-Up File Procedures

  1. To delete the .xinitrc file from your home directory, type the following command:


  $ rm .xinitrc
  1. To retain the changes to your .xinitrc file, do the following steps:

    a. Move .xinitrc to .xinitrc.save:


  $ mv .xinitrc .xinitrc.save
b. Copy $OPENWINHOME/lib/Xinitrc to .xinitrc in your home directory:

  $ cp $OPENWINHOME/lib/Xinitrc $HOME/.xinitrc
c. Add the lines that you want to keep from the .xinitrc.save to .xinitrc.
CAUTION Caution - When editing the .xinitrc file, do not add a secondary version of olwm, do not add svenv, and do not remove the line containing $OPENWINHOME/lib/openwin-sys.

Workspace Properties

In prior versions of OpenWindows (before version 3.3), a change made in the Workspace Properties menu would be stored in the file .Xdefaults in your home directory. In OpenWindows version 3.3, and later versions, changes made in the Workspace Properties menu are now stored in the file .OWdefaults, also in your home directory. The .Xdefaults file can still exist, but precedence is given to the customizations made in .OWdefaults.
The .Xdefaults file should be used only to make additional customization changes that cannot be made through Workspace Properties. For example, you can edit the .Xdefaults file using a text editor such as vi to make customizations to non-OpenWindows applications or to add C pre-processor macros. Using Workspace Properties does not disturb these customizations.
If you already have a .Xdefaults file in your home directory and you do not want to make any customization changes to it, you do not need to remove it. Since the .OWdefaults file takes precedence over it, it does not interfere.

Customizing the Workspace Menu

In OpenWindows 3.3, or later versions, you customize the Programs submenu on the workspace menu using Workspace Properties. Prior to OpenWindows 3.3, you did this customization by editing the .openwin-menu file in your home directory.
Note - If you do not have a .openwin-menu file in your home directory, it is not necessary to do the following procedure. You can customize the workspace menu by using Workspace Properties.
If you do have a .openwin-menu file, you must perform the following steps in order to use Workspace Properties to customize your workspace menu.
If you see the following line in your .openwin-menu file:

  "Programs"MENU $OPENWINHOME/lib/openwin-menu-programs
delete it and replace it with this line:

  "Programs"INCLUDE openwin-menu-programs
If your .openwin-menu file does not contain the line that needs to be removed and replaced, simply add the substitute line to the .openwin-menu file, as shown above.
Adding or substituting this line adds the default Programs menu to your workspace menu. This enables you to customize it using Workspace Properties.
If, by chance, you end up with redundant items in your workspace menu, simply edit them out by removing the redundant lines from .openwin-menu.
B Modifying the Keyboard

Modifying the Keyboard

B

This appendix provides instructions for remapping your keyboard. It includes remapping options for special keyboard keys,. It also provides information on how to disable and enable the Compose key on your keyboard.
For information on remapping your mouse buttons (for, for example, more convenient left-handed use of the mouse), see the Solaris User's Guide.
Disabling/Enabling the Compose Key

Disabling/Enabling the Compose Key

x86 - The Compose key is defined to be Ctrl-Shift-F1 on x86 systems.
If you do not use the Compose key, you can disable it so that you do not have to worry about pressing it inadvertently. First, find out the keycode for Multi_key:

  $ xmodmap -pk | grep Multi_key
Your system displays a line similar to:
nn 0xff20 (Multi_key)
The important piece of information is the two-digit keycode number at the beginning of the line, represented by nn. Use this keycode number to construct the following line in your .xinitrc file:

  xmodmap -e 'keycode nn = NoSymbol'
To re-enable the Compose key, comment out the previous line in your .xinitrc file and restart the OpenWindows software.
SPARC Left-Handed Key Remapping

SPARC Left-Handed Key Remapping

The key remapping script in this section (provided for the Type-4 and Type-5 keyboards) remaps most of the special keys on the left and right panels of the keyboard (that is, the keypads to the left and right of the main keyboard area).
SPARC - Note the following sections concerning "Left-Handed Key Remapping" apply only to SPARC-based machines.
SPARC Using the Remapping Script
Follow these steps to create and use your remapping script:
  1. Create a file called lefty.data using any text editor. This can be in any directory. Step 4 must occur in the same directory in which you create this file.

  2. Type in the script as shown in Table B-1 "The lefty.data Script.". Any line with an exclamation point in front of it is a comment line, and does not execute any operation.

  3. Save the changes and quit the editor.

  4. At the prompt, type: xmodmap lefty.data You must be in the same directory as the script file.

  5. Click a mouse button in the Workspace to make the script take effect.

    Once you have completed these steps you can use the keyboard so the keys are mapped for a left-handed person.

Type the following script into the file lefty.data, as described in step 1.
Table B-1 The lefty.data Script

 !  
 ! lefty.data  
 !  
 ! Data for xmodmap to set up the left and right function keys for left-handed use on  
 ! Sun type-4 keyboard.  To use this data type the following where <filename> is the  
 ! name of the file (i.e. lefty-data).  
 !  
 ! xmodmap <filename>  
 !  
 ! The comments below correspond to the keycode assignments following  
 !  immediately thereafter.  
 !  
 ! swap L2 (Again) with R1 (Pause)  
 ! swap L3 (Props) with R6 (KP_Multiply)  
 ! swap L4 (Undo) with R4 (KP_Equal)  
 ! swap L5 (Front) with R9 (KP_9)  
 ! swap L6 (Copy) with R7 (KP_7)  
 ! swap L7 (Open) with R12 (KP_6)  
 ! swap L8 (Paste) with R10 (Left)  
 ! swap L9 (Find) with R15 (KP_3)  
 ! swap L10 (Cut) with R13 (KP_1)  
 !  
 ! chng R3 (Break) to L1 (Stop)  
 ! chng R2 (Print) to R10 (Left)  
 ! chng R5 (KP_Divide) to R12 (Right)  
 !  
 ! chng Linefeed to Control-R  
 !
Table B-1 The lefty.data Script

 keycode 10 = R1            R1        Pause  
 keycode 28 = L2             L2        SunXK_Again  
 keycode 32 = R6             R6        KP_Multiply  
 keycode 54 = L3             L3         SunXK_Props  
 keycode 33 = R4            R4         KP_Equal  
 keycode 52 = L4            L4         SunXK_Undo  
 keycode 56 = R9           R9         KP_9        Prior  
 keycode 77 = L5            L5         SunXK_Front  
 keycode 58 = R7            R7        KP_7        Home  
 keycode 75 = L6            L6         SunXK_Copy  
 keycode 79 = Right      R12       KP_6  
 keycode 100 = L7          L7         SunXK_Open  
 keycode 80 = Left         R10       KP_4  
 keycode 98 = L8            L8      SunXK_Paste  
 keycode 102 = R15        R15    KP_3           Next  
 keycode 121 = L9          L9       SunXK_Find  
 keycode 104 = R13        R13    KP_1           End  
 keycode 119 = L10         L10    SunXK_Cut  
 keycode 30 = L1            L1       SunXK_Stop  
 keycode 29 = Left         R10     KP_4  
 keycode 53 = Right      R12     KP_6  
 keycode 118 = Control_R  
 add control = Control_R
SPARC Undoing the Keyboard Remapping
There are two ways to switch the keys back to their original settings. The first is to exit the OpenWindows software and start it up again. The second method, which is much preferable if you may want to switch the keys back periodically, is to create a second script and initiate it any time you want to
switch back.
Follow these instructions to create the second script:
  1. Use any editor to create a file called nolefty.data. This must be in the same directory that contains the lefty.data script.

  2. Type in the script as shown in Table B-2 "The nolefty.data Script.". Any line with an exclamation point in front of it is a comment line, and does not execute any operation.

  3. Save the changes and quit the editor.

  4. At the prompt, type:


  $ xmodmap nolefty.data
For the nolefty.data file to take affect, you must enter the previous command in the same directory as the script file.
Table B-2 The nolefty.data Script
!
! nolefty.data
!
! Data for xmodmap to reset the left and right function keys after being set for
! left-handed use on the Sun t ype-4 keyboard. To use this data type the following
! where <filename> is the name of this file.
!
! xmodmap <filename>
!
!Reassign standard values to left function keys
!
keycode 10 = L2 L2 SunXK_Again
keycode 32 = L3 L3 SunXK_Props
keycode 33 = L4 L4 SunXK_Undo
keycode 56 = L5 L5 SunXK_Front
Table B-2 The nolefty.data Script

 keycode 58 = L6       L6       SunXK_Copy  
 keycode 79 = L7       L7       SunXK_Open  
 keycode 80 = L8       L8       SunXK_Paste  
 keycode 102 = L9     L9       SunXK_Find  
 keycode 104 = L10    L10     Sun XK_Cut  
 !  
 ! Reassign standard values to right function keys.  
 !  
 keycode 28 = R1      R1       Pause  
 keycode 29 = R2      R2       Print  
 keycode 30 = R3      R3       Scroll_Lock    Break  
 keycode 52 = R4      R4       KP_Equal  
 keycode 53 = R5      R5       KP_Divide  
 keycode 54 = R6        R6       KP_Multiply  
 keycode 75 = R7        R7       KP_7           Home  
 keycode 77 = R9        R9       KP_9           Prior  
 keycode 98 = Left      R10     KP_4  
 keycode 100 = Right R12      KP_6  
 keycode 119 = R13    R13      KP_1          End  
 keycode 121 = R15    R15      KP_3          Next  
 !  
 ! Reassign the Linefeed key as such and remove from control map.  
 !  
 remove control = Control_R  
 5keycode 118 = Linefeed
C Running Networked Applications

Running Networked Applications

C

This appendix describes an advanced feature of the OpenWindows environment that enables you to run applications that reside on another machine on your network.
Note - Most users do not need to read this appendix. If you want to explore the possibility of running networked applications, you can talk to your system administrator about the special applications that may be available on your network.
Normally in the OpenWindows environment all the applications on your screen (such as Mail Tool and Calendar Manager) are programs that are running on your local machine. However, if your workstation is part of a network, you can run applications on another machine and display them on your local screen. Running an application in this manner saves computing cycles on your local machine, and gives you access to an entire network of applications.
This appendix describes the simplest scenario for running an application on a remote machine and displaying it on your local screen. Because your computing environment may vary, you will need to be flexible in following these instructions. The section "More About Security," provides additional information on the complexities of running networked applications.
To use the following procedure to run a remote application, you must meet these requirements:
  • You must have access rights to the remote machine.
  • Your home directory must be NFS-mountable on the remote machine.
  • The application and appropriate libraries must be installed on the remote machine, or host.
Contact your system administrator if you do not understand these requirements.
Using rlogin to Run a Networked Application

Using rlogin to Run a Networked Application

The key to running a networked application on a remote machine is to make sure your environment variables are set correctly:
  • The HOME environment variable in your shell on the remote machine must be set to your home directory.
  • The DISPLAY environment variable in your shell on the remote machine must be set to your local screen.
  • If the OpenWindows libraries have not been installed in the standard /usr/lib or /usr/local shared library directories, you must set the LD_LIBRARY_PATH environment variable to the appropriate directory ($OPENWINHOME/lib).
Below is an example of running a Command Tool on a remote machine using rlogin. In this example, the home directory is mounted on the remote machine on /home/mydirectory, and the OpenWindows software is located
in /usr/openwin on the remote machine. Change the variables, mydirectory and mymachine as appropriate for your arrangement. Also, replace cmdtool, with the name of the application you want to run.

  $ rlogin remotemachine  
     .  
     .  
  (The following commands are executed on the remote machine.)]  
     .  
     .  
  $ HOME=/home/mydirectory  
  $ DISPLAY=mymachine:0  
  $ LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/usr/openwin/lib  
  $ /usr/openwin/bin/cmdtool &
After you enter the last line, a Command Tool window appears on your screen. Even though you interact with this application just as you would with any other application on your screen, the Command Tool application itself is actually running on the remote machine.
Although there is no particular advantage to running a Command Tool in this way (it is already locally available on your machine and does not use a significant amount of your computing resources), this example shows how to run any remote application that may be available to you.
More About Security

More About Security

This section describes some fundamentals of network security that you may find useful as you run applications across the network, including:
  • User-based and host-based access control mechanisms
  • The MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 and SUN-DES-1 authorization protocols
  • When and how to change a server's access control
  • How to run applications remotely, or locally as a different user

Who Should Read this Section

The default security configuration in the OpenWindows Version 3.3 software, or later versions, does not need to be changed unless you run applications in any of the following configurations:
  • You run an application linked with versions of Xlib or libcps older than the OpenWindows Version 2 software or X11R4.
  • You run an application that is statically linked to OpenWindows Version 2 libraries and you want to use the SUN-DES-1 authorization protocol.
  • You run an application on a remote server.

Access Control Mechanisms

An access control mechanism is a means of deciding which clients, or applications, have access to the X11 server. Only properly authorized clients are allowed to connect to the server; all others are denied access, and are terminated with an error message.
There are two different types of access control mechanisms: user-based and host-based. (That is, one mechanism grants access to a particular user's account, while the other grants access to a particular host, or machine.) Unless the -noauth option is used with openwin, both the user-based access control mechanism and the host-based access control mechanism are active. For more information see "Manipulating Access to the Server" in this chapter.

User-Based Access

A user-based, or authorization-based mechanism allows you to explicitly give access to a particular user on any host machine. The user's client passes authorization data to the server. If the data match the server's authorization data, the user is allowed access.

Host-Based Access

A host-based mechanism is a general purpose mechanism. It allows you to give access to a particular host, in which all users on that host can connect to the server. This is a weaker form of access control: if that host has access to the server, all users on that host are allowed to connect to the server.
The host-based mechanism is primarily used for backward compatibility. Applications linked with versions of Xlib or libcps older than the OpenWindows Version 2 software or X11R4 do not recognize the new user-based access control mechanism. To give these applications the ability to connect to the server, a user must either switch to the host-based mechanism, or relink with the newer versions of Xlib and libcps.
Note - If possible, clients linked with older versions of Xlib or libcps should be relinked with newer versions of these libraries to enable them to connect to the server with the new user-based access control mechanism.

Authorization Protocols

Two authorization protocols are supported in this version of the OpenWindows software: MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 and SUN-DES-1. They differ in the authorization data used; they are similar in the access control mechanism used. At any time, the server implements only one protocol. The MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 protocol using the user-based mechanism is the default in the OpenWindows software.

MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1

The MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 authorization protocol was developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. At server start-up, a magic cookie is created for the server and the user who started the system. On every connection attempt, the user's client sends the magic cookie to the server as part of the connection packet. This magic cookie is compared with the servers' magic cookie. The connection is allowed if the magic cookies match, or denied if they do not match.

SUN-DES-1

The SUN-DES-1 authorization protocol, developed by Sun Microsystems, is based on Secure RPC (Remote Procedure Call) and requires DES (Data Encryption Software) support. The authorization information is the machine-independent netname, or network name, of a user. This information is encrypted and sent to the server as part of the connection packet. The server decrypts the information, and if the netname is known, allows the connection.
This protocol provides a higher level of security than the MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 protocol. There is no way for another user to use your machine independent netname to access a server, but it is possible for another user to use the magic cookie to access a server.
"Allowing Access When Using SUN-DES-1," in this chapter, describes how to allow another user access to your server by adding their netname to your server's access list.

Changing the Default Authorization Protocol

The default authorization protocol, MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1, can be changed to SUN_DES-1, the other supported authorization protocol, or to no user-based access mechanism at all. You change the default by supplying options with the openwin command. For example, to change the default from MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 to SUN-DES-1, start the OpenWindows software as follows:

  $ openwin -auth sun-des
If you must run the OpenWindows software without the user-based access mechanism, use the -noauth command line option:

  $ openwin -noauth
CAUTION Caution - Using -noauth weakens security. It is equivalent to running the OpenWindows software with the host-based access control mechanism only; the server inactivates the user-based access control mechanism. Anyone that can run applications on your local machine will be allowed access to your server.

Manipulating Access to the Server

Unless the -noauth option is used with openwin (see "Changing the Default Authorization Protocol"), both the user-based access control mechanism and the host-based access control mechanism are active. The server first checks the user-based mechanism, then the host-based mechanism. The default security configuration uses MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 as the user-based mechanism, and
an empty list for the host-based mechanism. Since the host-based list is empty, only the user-based mechanism is effectively active. Using the -noauth option instructs the server to inactivate the user-based access control mechanism, and initializes the host-based list by adding the local host.
There are three programs you can use to change a server's access control mechanism: xhost and xauth. These programs access two binary files created by the authorization protocol. These files contain session-specific authorization data. One file is for server internal use only. The other file is located in the user's $HOME directory:
  • .Xauthority..........Client Authority file
Use the xhost program to change the host-based access list in the server. You can add hosts to or delete hosts from the access list. If you are starting with the default configuration -- an empty host-based access list -- and use xhost to add a machine name, you will lower the level of security. The server will allow access to the host you added, as well as to any user specifying the default authorization protocol. See "Host-Based Access" for an explanation of why the host-based access control mechanism is considered a lower level of security.
The xauth program accesses the authorization protocol data in the .Xauthority client file. You can extract this information from your .Xauthority file so that another user can merge the data into their .Xauthority file, thus allowing them access to your server, or to the server to which you connect.
See "Allowing Access When Using MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1" for examples of how to use xhost and xauth.

Client Authority File

The client authority file is .Xauthority. It contains entries of the form:

  connection-protocol          auth-protocol          auth-data
By default, .Xauthority contains MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 as the auth-protocol, and entries for the local display only as the connection-protocol and auth-data. For example, on host anyhost, the .Xauthority file may contain the following entries:

  anyhost:0        MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1      82744f2c4850b03fce7ae47176e75  
  localhost:0    MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1        82744f2c4850b03fce7ae47176e75  
  anyhost/unix:0 MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1  82744f2c4850b03fce7ae47176e75
When the client starts up, an entry corresponding to the connection-protocol is read from .Xauthority, and the auth-protocol and auth-data are sent to the server as part of the connection packet. In the default configuration, xhost returns empty host-based access lists and state that authorization is enabled.
If you have changed the authorization protocol from the default to SUN-DES-1 the entries in .Xauthority contain SUN-DES-1 as the auth-protocol and the netname of the user as auth-data. The netname is in the following form:

  unix.userid@NISdomainname
For example, on host, anyhost the .Xauthority file may contain the following entries, where unix.15339@EBB.Eng.Sun.COM is the machine-independent netname of the user:

  anyhost:0        SUN-DES-1            "unix.15339@EBB.Eng.Sun.COM"  
  localhost:0        SUN-DES-1              "unix.15339@EBB.Eng.Sun.COM"  
  anyhost/unix:0   SUN-DES-1            "unix.15339@EBB.Eng.Sun.COM"
Note - If you do not know your network name, or machine independent netname, ask your system administrator.

Allowing Access When Using MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1

If you are using the MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 authorization protocol, follow these steps to allow another user access to your server:
  1. On the machine running the server, use xauth to extract an entry corresponding to hostname:0 into a file.

    For this example, hostname is anyhost and the file is xauth.info:


  $ $OPENWINHOME/bin/xauth nextract - anyhost:0 > $HOME/xauth.info
Note that because of the length of the line above, it wraps to a second line; however, it should appear on a single line when you type it on your screen.
  1. Send the file containing the entry to the user requesting access (using Mail Tool, rcp or some other file transfer method).

Note - Mailing the file containing your authorization information is a safer method than using rcp. If you do use rcp, do not place the file in a directory that is easily accessible by another user.
  1. The other user must merge the entry into their .Xauthority file. For this example, userhost merges xauth.info their .Xauthority file:


  $ $OPENWINHOME/bin/xauth nmerge - < xauth.info
Note - The auth-data is session-specific; therefore, it is valid only as long as the server is not restarted.

Allowing Access When Using SUN-DES-1

If you are using the SUN-DES-1 authorization protocol, follow these steps to allow another user access to your server:
  1. On the machine running the server, use xhost to make the new user known to the server.

    For this example, to allow new user somebody to run on myhost:


  $ xhost + somebody@
  1. The new user must use xauth to add the entry into their .Xauthority file.

    For this example, the new user's machine independent netname is unix.15339@EBB.Eng.Sun.COM. Note that this command should be typed on one line with no carriage return. After the pipe symbol, type a space followed by the remainder of the command.


  $ echo 'add myhost:0 SUN-DES-1 "unix.15339@EBB.Eng.Sun.COM"' |  
  $OPENWINHOME/bin/xauth
Note that because of the length of the line above, it wraps to a second line; however, it should appear on a single line when you type it on your screen

Running Clients Remotely, or Locally as Another User

X clients use the value of the DISPLAY environment variable to get the name of the server to which they should connect.
To run clients remotely, or locally as another user, follow these steps:
  1. On the machine running the server, allow another user access.

    Depending on which authorization protocol you use, follow the steps outlined in either "Allowing Access When Using MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1" or "Allowing Access When Using SUN-DES-1."

  1. Set DISPLAY to the name of the host running the server. For this example, the host is remotehost:


  $ DISPLAY=remotehost:0
  1. Run the client program as shown.


  $ client_program&
The client is displayed on the remote machine, remotehost.
D SPARC - DECnet Internetworking(DNI)

SPARC --DECnet Internetworking(DNI)

D

This appendix describes how to internetwork the OpenWindows environment and the DECwindows(TM) environment via the NSP DECnet transport protocol.
SPARC - Note that this whole chapter concerning "DECnet Internetworking" applies only to SPARC-based machines. DECnet internetworking is also available only with 8.x DNI.
There are two DNI scenarios:
  • Running an X11 client on a VAX system (under the VMS(R) operating system) and displaying the client's window on an OpenWindows machine
  • Running an X11 client on an OpenWindows machine and displaying the client's window on a VAX system
These two scenarios are described in the following sections after an initial section on how to set up the DNI software for either scenario.
Setting Up DECnet Internetworking

Setting Up DECnet Internetworking

To set up DECnet internetworking, follow these steps:
  1. Enable a connection via DNI.

    The OpenWindows server and client libraries use a dynamically loadable version of the DNI transport library libdni. In order for the server and client libraries to load libdni you must set the environment variable DNI_X_ENABLE to the directory where libdni.so is installed.

The example below assumes you loaded DNI via pkgadd in the default location:

  $ DNI_X_ENABLE=/opt/SUNWconn/dni/lib
  1. Start the OpenWindows server.

    By default, the OpenWindows server supports "MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE" security. This security mechanism is user-specific, rather than host-specific -- you decide which users may connect to the server instead of which machines may connect to the server. In the default mode, the xhost command returns an empty list, and states only that security is turned on. You can turn off this security mode (and revert to the security mode of previous OpenWindows server versions) by using the

    -noauth option with the openwin command.


  $ openwin -noauth
  1. Request the owner of the machine running the OpenWindows software to use the xhost command to give DEC(R) VAX(R) permission to have an X11 connection to the OpenWindows server.

    In order for X11 clients to connect to the OpenWindows server through the DNI software, the DECnet node addresses must be mapped to their DECnet node names. You do this by creating and initializing the NCP database. This must also be done on the DEC VAX system.


  $ xhost decvax::
The double colon specifies the DECNet transport.
Displaying a Remote Client on an OpenWindows Machine

Displaying a Remote Client on an OpenWindows Machine

You can run X11 clients from VMS by using the SunLink DNI dnilogin command to log into the VAX system. First, set the environment variable DISPLAY on your local machine to be the X11 server on the remote machine. Then run an X11 client by entering the name of the client, represented here by x11_client. (See the VMS DECwindows User's Guide, Running Applications Across the Network for more information on using the VMS operating system.)
For example:

  $ dnilogin decvax  
     .  
     .  
     .  
  $ define DECW$DISPLAY OW_machine::0  
  $ spawn/nowait run x11_client
Displaying a Remote Client on a VAX

Displaying a Remote Client on a VAX

You can run X11 clients on an OpenWindows machine and display them on a DECwindows server by setting the DISPLAY variable to the remote VAX system.
Before you can run any of the X11 clients you must compile and install the OpenWindows fonts in the DECwindows server. These fonts are available in the MIT X11R4 release or in the optional font package with the OpenWindows Version 3.3 software. Follow these steps to install the proper fonts in the DECwindows server:
  1. Install the optional OpenWindows font sources (of the font sources from the MIT X11R4 release) on the OpenWindows machine.

  2. See the OpenWindows Server Programmer's Guide for font installation instructions.

  3. Copy the font sources to a directory on the VAX system.


  $ cd $OPENWINHOME/share/src/fonts/misc  
  $ dnicp *.bdf 'decvax::[vaxdir]'
  1. Compile the cursor fonts on the VAX system.

    This results in files such as: olcursor.decw$font;1 olglyph10.decw$font;1...


  $ font olcursor.bdf  
  $ font olglyph10.bdf  
  ...
  1. Copy the fonts to the sysfont directory:


  $ set def sys$sysroot:[sysfont.decw.user_cursor16]  
  $ copy [vaxdir]olcursor.decw$font;1 *
Note - You must be logged in as "system" on the DEC VAX system to copy the fonts to the sysfont directory.
  1. You must also perform steps 2-4 for the rest of the cursor fonts and for the Lucida fonts in $OPENWINHOME/share/src/fonts/75dpi and

  $OPENWINHOME/share/src/fonts/100dpi.
Note - The Lucida fonts should be installed in
sys$sysroot:[sysfont.decw.user_75dpi] and
sys$sysroot:[sysfont.decw.user_100dpi].
The following list shows the minimum working set of fonts needed to be installed in order to run the OpenWindows DeskSet tools. If you are using default fonts for the applications you should only have to install these fonts. You can, however, install more fonts as needed.
  • olcursor.bdf
  • olglyph10.bdf
  • olglyph12.bdf
  • olglyph14.bdf
  • olglyph19.bdf
  • luBS08.bdf
  • luBS10.bdf
  • luBS12.bdf
  • luBS14.bdf
  • luRS08.bdf
  • luRS10.bdf
  • luFS12.bdf
  • lutBs12.bdf
  • lutRS10.bdf
  • lutRS12.bdf
  1. Restart the DECwindows server.

  2. You can verify that the fonts were installed by listing the available fonts in the DECwindows server:


  $ DISPLAY=decvax::0  
  $ xlsfonts | grep Sun       (Cursor fonts)  
  $ xlsfonts | grep Lucida
  1. Make sure you have given the OpenWindows node permission to display on the DECwindows server by using the Security Menu in the DECwindows Session Manager.

  1. Run an X11 application (for example, an OpenWindows DeskSet tool).


  $ DISPLAY=decvax::0  
  $ mailtool
Note - DNI_X_ENABLE must be set to the location of the DNI transport library libdni. See Step 1 under "Setting Up DECnet Internetworking," in this chapter.
If an error message such as the one below is printed, you need to install that font in the DECwindows server in order to run the application.
XView warning: Cannot load font '-b&h-lucida-medium-r-*-*-*-
80-*-*-*-*-*-*' (Font package)
This error message means font luRS10.bdf needs to be installed.
See the OpenWindows Server Programmer's Guide for more information on fonts.
E Setting Up Printers and Modems

Setting Up Printers and Modems

E

Setting Up a Modem on Your System

Setting Up a Modem on Your System

A modem is a device that enables your system to transmit and receive information over telephone lines. You can set up a modem on your system easily using the graphical Administration Tool. Here are the steps:
  1. Connect the modem.

    You generally perform the following tasks to connect a modem to your system:

  • Physically connect the modem to the system, or install it (if you have a modem card).
  • Set the any required switches and/or configure baud rate, port, and other settings on the modem.
  • Plug the modem or its adapter into a power outlet, if required.
Consult the modem vendor's documentation and the installation documentation for your system for information you may need to perform these tasks.
  1. Become root.

    Unless you are a member of the special UNIX sysadmin group (GID 14), you must become root on your system in order to use the Administration Tool. Root is a system user with special permission to modify system files.

    Use the su command to become root:


  $ su  
  Password:      (enter the root password here)  
  #
If the root account is password protected, you'll need to know the root password. If not, you can simply press Return at the Password prompt. If you do not know the root password for your system, contact a system administrator at your site for help.
  1. Start Administration Tool.

    Type:


  # /usr/bin/admintool &  
  #
The graphical Administration Tool will appear after a few seconds.

Figure E-1 The Administration Tool

  1. Choose the Serial Port Manager.

    To start Serial Port Manager, click on the Serial Port Manager icon in the Administration Tool window. This opens a new window with controls and choices for managing modems and terminals.

  2. Follow the instructions in online help.

    Serial Port Manager online Help provides step-by-step instructions on how to use the Serial port Manager to install a modem. To see the Help instructions, choose Help... from the Serial Port Manager window.

For Additional Information About Modems

For additional information about installing and configuring modems, see the Peripherals Administration manual, which is part of the Solaris 2.4 System Administrator AnswerBook.
Setting Up a Printer For Use On Your System

Setting Up a Printer For Use On Your System

The easiest way to set up a printer is by using the graphical Administration Tool. The following instructions explain how to set up a local printer for use on your individual system. For guidelines and instructions on network printing setup, see the Peripherals Administration manual, which is part of the Solaris 2.4 System Administrator AnswerBook.
Here are the steps for setting up a local printer:
  1. Connect the printer.

    You generally perform the following tasks to connect a printer to your system:

  • Physically connect the printer to the system
  • Set the any required switches and/or configure baud rate, port, and other settings on the printer.
  • Plug the printer into a power outlet.
You can connect the printer to the system and turn the power on before or after using the Administration Tool to add it. See the printer vendor's manual and your system's installation manual for information about switch settings and cabling requirements. You usually connect printer cables to a serial port, but in some cases, depending on the requirements of the printer involved, you can use a parallel port.
  1. Become root.

    Unless you are a member of the special UNIX sysadmin group (GID 14), you must become root on your system in order to use the Administration Tool. Root is a system user with special permission to modify system files.

    Use the su command to become root:


  $ su  
  Password:      (enter the root password here)  
  #
If the root account is password protected, you'll need to know the root password. If not, you can simply press Return at the Password prompt. If you do not know the root password for your system, contact a system administrator at your site for help.
  1. Start Administration Tool.

    Type:


  # /usr/bin/admintool &  
  #
The graphical Administration Tool will appear after a few seconds. (See Figure E-1 on page 191.)
  1. Choose the Printer Manager.

    To start Printer Manager, click on the Printer Manager icon in the Administration Tool window. This opens a new window with controls and choices for managing printers.

  2. Follow the instructions in online help.

    Printer Manager online Help provides step-by-step instructions on how to use the Serial port Manager to install a modem. To see the Help instructions, choose Help... from the Printer Manager window.

For Additional Information About Printers

For detailed information about installing and managing printers, see the Peripherals Administration manual, which is part of the Solaris 2.4 System Administrator AnswerBook.
Index

Index

Symbols

.. symbol35

A

absolute permissions50 to 53
.....See also permission
account1
aliases150
append command78
application
.....networked
............with DNI (DECnet)183
.....on a remote machine172
apropos command25
authorization protocols,See security

B

background jobs23
bdiff command41
blind copies108
Bourne shell
.....and initialization files145 to 146

C

C shell
.....and aliases150
.....and command history20 to 21
.....and initialization files145 to 146
campus area network136
cancel command132
carbon copies108
case sensitivity
.....and commands18
.....and thevi editor75, 87
cat command31
cd command28, 34 to 36
CDPATH variable147
changing directories34 to 36
character string87
chmod command46, 50
.....andumask153
command history20 to 21
command mode71, 72
command options21
command prompt17
.....defining148, 151
Command Tool
.....on a remote machine172
commands
.....and case sensitivity18
.....and determining funtionality24
.....and keyword lookup25
.....and options21
.....and piping output22
.....and redirecting output21 to 22
.....and syntax24
.....entering long19
.....entering multiple19
.....executing on a remote machine142 to 143
.....repeating previous20 to 21
.....repeatingvi84
.....running in the background23
.....tilde120
commenting out text119
compose key, disable/enable165
concatenate,Seecat command31
convert_to_Xdefaults program160
copying
.....directories38
.....files29
.....from a remote machine141
.....lines betweenvi files92
.....mail to a file111
.....mail to folders111 to 112
.....to a remote machine142
.....vi text82
.....vi text withex commands85
cp command29, 38
cpu time66
.cshrc file146 to 153

D

date command18
default
.....command prompt17
.....directory28
.....file permissions153 to 154
.....printer124, 148
.....shell145
default ring on menusxvi
.defaults file159
deleting
.....directories38
.....files31
......mail103 to 104
......vi text81
......vi text withex commands86
df command68
diff command39 to 40
diff3 command41
directory
......and path name32
......changing34 to 36
......changing permissions47 to 49
......checking usage68
......copying37
......creating a new36
......dead.letter107
......definition of28
......displaying current34
......hierarchy33
......home34
......moving37
......removing38
......renaming37
......root33
......security44 to 53
......setting default permissions153 to 154
......setting up a folder111
disk usage68
DISPLAY environment variable181
displaying
......contents of a remote directory142
......directory usage68
......disk usage68
......file contents31
......file permissions45
......mailbox list102
......printer status128 to 130
......remote users143 to 144
......users on your file server105
......your remote login location140
displays, starting OpenWindows withmore than one monitor13
ditroff program69
dot files46
.......xinitrc161
du command68

E

echo2, 64
electronic mail,See mail
email,See mail
entry mode71
env command147
environment variables
.....in initialization files147 to 150
ex commands72, 84 to 87
executable files27
execute permission44

F

file
......cshrc146
......login146
......mailrc115
......profile146
...../etc/aliases117
...../etc/hosts.equiv141, 143
...../etc/passwd141, 143, 145
...../etc/profile146
.....and thediff command39 to 41
.....changing permissions47 to 49
.....checking type32
.....copying29
.....creating new29
.....definition of27 to 28
.....displaying contents31
.....initialization145 to 146
.....inserting in a letter109
.....listing invisible46
.....permissions44
.....printing124
.....saving mail in110 to 111
.....searching for41 to 44
.....security44 to 53
.....setting default permissions153 to 154
file command32
find command41 to 44
finger command106
folders111 to 114
fonts
......changing default155
......for networked applications186
......listing158

G

grep command
......and metacharacters60 to 61
......and regular expressions58 to 60
......and strings57
......as a filter56
......syntax for55 to 56

H

hidden files
.......xinitrc161
history command
......setting148
history command20
HISTORY variable148
home directory28, 34
......andrlogin command137
......and the tilde shortcut34
......defining148
HOME variable148

I

initialization files145 to 146
insert command78
internetwork136

K

keyboard
......remapping for left-handed use166
......undoing left-handed mapping168
kill command67
Korn shell
......and initialization files145 to 146

L

LANG variable148
left-handed use
.....of keyboard166
.....of mouse165
line printer subsystem,See printing
local area network136
local language148
logging in to the system1
.....as someone else138
.....remotely136 to 140
.....with windows11
logging out of the system3
.login file146
login name1
.....defining148
login shell2 to 3, 145
logname command19
LOGNAME variable148
lp command123
.....table of options127
LP print service,See printing
LPDEST variable148
lpstat command127 to 132
.....syntax for131
.....table of options132
ls command29
.....and listing invisible files46
.....and long format option45 to 46

M

mail
.....aliases
............comparison table120
............definition of115
............in .mailrc file115 to 117
............in /etc/aliases117 to 120
.....and the mailbox98
.....and undeliverable letters107
.....blind copies108
.....canceling unsent letters107
.....carbon copies108
......checking version100
......copy command111
......deleting letters103 to 104
......determining a user's address106
......displaying list of letters102
......folders111 to 114
......getting help121
......inserting a file109
......inserting another letter109
......mbox file98
......printing105
......quitting101
......reading100, 102 to 103
......replying to109 to 110
......saving110 to 113
......sending105 to 107
............multiple recipients106
......starting98
......tilde commands120
......using vi with114
mail alias115
......See alsomail
mail folder111
......See alsofolder
MAIL variable148
mailbox98
......See alsomail
......setting the path for148
.mailrc file115
mailx program
......quitting101
mailx program
......See alsomail
man command2, 24
man pages,See manual reference pages
MANSECTS variable148
manual reference pages2, 24, 148
mbox file98
......See alsomail
metacharacters58
MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE security184
mkdir command
......and mail111
mkdir command36
modem
.....(defined)189
monitors
.....side by side display ofOpenWindows14
.....top/bottom display ofOpenWindows15
more command31
mouse
.....remapping buttons165
moving
.....directories37
.....files30
.....vi text83
.....vi text withex commands86
multiple screens, start-up13
mv command30

N

named buffers84
network
.....definition of135
.....protocol136
network, largerxiii
networked applications
.....with DECnet183
-noauth option toopenwin12, 176
nohup command23
nroff program69

O

on-line help24
open line command79
openwin
.....-dev option13, 14, 15
.....deviceoptions option14
.....-noauth option12, 174, 176
OpenWindows
.....and initialization files146
.....and logging in and out11
.....and mail97
......on dual monitors13
......security with MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE184
options21

P

parallel port192
parameters
......setting forvi92
parent directory35
passwd command65
password1
......aging65
......changing64
......choosing63
Passwords, Processes and DiskStorage63
path name32
......relative36
PATH variable148, 149 to 150
permission
......and the * wildcard character49
......categories for44
......changing47 to 49
......setting absolute50 to 53
......setting default153 to 154
......types of44
PIDs66 to 67
pipe symbol22
piping
......command output22
......du output throughsort68
......mail to the lp command105
......output throughgrep56
......ps output throughgrep67
print queue130
printers
......port
............parallel versus serial192
printing
......See alsolp command
......and determining printer type130
......and requesting a completion
...................notice125
.....canceling requests132 to 133
.....checking printer availability128
.....checking status of127 to 130
.....mail105
.....multiple copies126
.....request id number133
.....to a specific printer124 to 125
.....to the default printer124
.....vi files75
process identification numbers,SeePIDs
processes
.....killing