What Every Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic
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............................Contents


Abstract
1

Introduction
2

Rounding Error
2
..Floating-point Formats 3
..Relative Error and Ulps 5
..Guard Digits 6
..Cancellation 8

The IEEE Standard
17
..Formats and Operations 18
..Special Quantities 24
..NaNs 25
..Exceptions, Flags and Trap Handlers 32

Systems Aspects
37
..Instruction Sets 38
..Languages and Compilers 40
..Exception Handling 48

The Details
50
..Rounding Error 50
..Errors In Summation 61

Summary
62

Acknowledgments
63

References
63

Theorem 14 and Theorem 8
65